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BY 

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Main  Lib,      AUKIU,  UtN 


PROF.  WM.  DIETRICH. 


SWINE 

Breeding,  Feeding 

AND 

Management 


By  WILLIAM  DIETRICH 

Assistant  Professor  of   Swine  Husbandry 
University  of  Illinois 

AND 

Assistant  Chief  in  Swine  Husbandry 

Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

Ufbana,  Illinois 


CHICAGO,  ILL.: 

Sanders  Publishing  Company 

1912 


Mam  Lt 


MainUb. 


COPYRIGHT  1910 

SANDERS  PUBLISHING  CO. 

All  rights  reserved 


PREFACE. 

The  discussions  here  given  are  the  results  of  a  number 
of  years  of  specialized  study  in  swine  husbandry  in  con- 
nection with  a  thorough  study  of  the  principles  of  animal 
nutrition.  Practical  farm  experience  was  supplemented 
by  a  detailed  study  of  experimental  data  and  a  great 
deal  of  original  investigation  in  the  subject.  An  at- 
tempt is  made  to  present  the  subject  of  swine  breeding, 
feeding  and  management  in  such  a  form  that  it  can 
be  understood  by  the  general  farmer  and  swine  breeder; 
the  man  who  is  producing  hogs  for  the  pork  product 
as  well  as  the  man  who  is  producing  pure-bred  swine 
for  breeding  purposes.  The  student  also  is  kept  in 
mind,  and  it  is  hoped  that  the  elementary  form  in  which 
this  subject  is  presented  will  appeal  to  the  needs  of  the 
class  room. 

It  is  attempted  to  present  the  various  subjects  in 
logical  order,  or  in  the  order  in  which  they  would  natu- 
rally present  themselves.  The  first  question  that  arises 
is  the  selection  of  a  breed.  In  order  to  do  this  intel- 
ligently the  characteristics  of  the  breeds  must  be  known. 
Then  something  must  be  learned  about  judging  in  order 
to  be  able  to  establish  a  herd.  Following  this  comes  the 
origin  of  the  breeds,  giving  the  breeder  an  idea  of  the 
characteristics  that  will  probably  be  transmitted  by  in- 
dividuals of  a  breed,  which  will  enable  the  breeder  to 
develop  his  herd  properly  and  then  breed  for  improve- 
ment. 

Thus  Part  I  deals  with  breeds  and  breeding,  Part  II 
with  feeding,  and  Part  III  with  the  general  care  and 
management  of  swine. 

(8) 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

PART  I.     SWINE   BREEDING. 

CHAPTER  1. — SELECTION  OF  A  BREED. 

Type  of  Swine — Fat  or  Lard  Hog — Bacon  Hog — Production  of 
Type — Location — Color  of  Swine — Advantages  in  Market- 
ing    13-22 

CHAPTER  2. — SIZE,  PROLIFICACY  AND  QUALITY. 
Size  and  Age  of  Hogs — Rate  of  Growth — Total  Feed  Eaten  and 
Cost  per  Pound  Gain — Feed  Eaten  per   100  Pounds  Live 
Weight — Maturity — Prolificacy — (Quality 23-29 

CHAPTER  3. — BREEDS,  PRINCIPAL  CHARACTERISTICS. 
Bacon    Breeds — Tamworths — Large    Yorkshires — Breeds    of    the 
Fat    or    Lard    Type — Berkshire — Chester    White — Duroc- 
Jersey — Poland-China — Hampshire — Cheshire  —  Essex  — 
Other  Breeds 30-49 

CHAPTER  4. — JUDGING  SWINE. 

Fat  or  Lard  Type  and  Standard  of  Excellence — Fat  or  Lard  Hog 
for  Breeding  and  Standard  of  Excellence — Fat  or  Lard 
Hog  for  Market — Bacon  Type — Standard  of  Excellence  for 
Bacon  Hog  for  Breeding — Standard  of  Excellence  for 
Bacon  Hog  for  Market 51-67 

CHAPTER  5. — ESTABLISHING  A  BREEDING  HERD. 
The   Grade   Herd— The    Pure-Bred    Herd— Public    Sale— Private 
Sale — Bred  Sows — The  Herd  Boar — Additional  Herd  Spec- 
imens— Requirements  for  Success 68-73 

CHAPTER  6. — ORIGIN  OF  THE  BREEDS. 
English    Breeds — The    Wild    Boar — Sus    Indica — Production    of 

Breeds — American  Breeds 74-77 

CHAPTER  7. — DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  BREEDS. 

Tamworth — Large  Yorkshire — Old  Yorkshire — Leicester — Small 
Yorkshire — Method  of  Procedure — Pedigree  of  Develop- 
ment of  Large  Yorkshire — Berkshire — Chester  White — 
Original  Foundation  Stock — Todd's  Improved  Chester — 
Ohio  Improved  Chester — Duroc-Jersey — Durocs  and  Jer- 
sey Reds — Poland-China — Origin  of  Poland-China  Foun- 
dation Stock — The  Poland  Hog — Russian  Hog  of  the 
United  States — The  Byfield — The  China  Hog — The  Irish 
Pig — Irish  Grazier — Berkshires:  the  Development  of  the 
Breed — The  Hampshire  (Thin  Rind) — Cheshire  or  Jef- 
ferson County  Swine  of  New  York — Essex  Swine — Large 
Blacks  and  Lincolns 78-100 

CHAPTER  8. — METHODS  OF  BREEDING. 

Pure-Bred  Swine — Out  Crossing — Line  Breeding — Close  Breeding 
— Inbreeding — Character  of  Offspring — Grading — Cross 

Breeding — Swine  Breeding  101-113 

<*) 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


PART    II.      SWINE    FEEDING. 

CHAPTER  9. — WHAT  Is  A  HOG? 
Water — Protein — Fat — Ash  or  Mineral  Matter 117-122 

CHAPTER  10. — SOURCES  AND  CHARACTER  OF  BUILDING  MATERIAL. 
Food   Nutrients — Coefficients  of  Digestibility — Protein — Carbohy- 
drate— Fat     or     Ether     Extract — Mineral     Matter — Dry 
Feeds — Classification   and   Composition   of   Feeds — Water 
— Air     123-134 

CHAPTER  11. — THE   COMMON  PRACTICE  OF   SWINE   FEEDING. 
Feeds — Water — Pasture — Summer    Feeding — Winter    Feeding — 

Hogging  Down  Corn — Work  of  Experiment  Stations 135-142 

CHAPTER  12. — THE  WOLFF-LEHMANN  FEEDING  STANDARD. 
Nutritive  Ratio — Requirement  of  Nutrients — The   Standard  and 

the  Pig — Results  from  Use  of  Standard 143-146 

CHAPTER  13. — METHOD  OF  FEEDING  DEVELOPED  BY  THE  AUTHOR. 
Factors  in  Feeding — Maintenance  Requirement — Factor  of  Waste 
— Feed  Available  for  Making  Gains — Requirement  of  Nu- 
trients— Water  Requirement — Protein  Requirement — Car- 
bohydrate Requirement — Ether  Extract  Requirement — 
Mineral  Matter  Requirement — The  Pig  as  a  Machine — 
Variety  in  Ration — The  Appetite  of  the  Pig — Influence  of 
Environment — Influence  of  Previous  Generations — Feed- 
ing too  Much  and  too  Little — Large  Gains  and  Eco- 
nomical Gains — Selection  of  Feeds — Method  of  Calculat- 
ing Rations — Method  of  Procedure — Compounding  Rations 
— Grinding  Grain — Effect  on  the  Distribution  of  Pro- 
tein— Effect  on  Palatability — Effect  on  Water  Supply — 
Hard  and  Small  Seeds — Soaking  Feeds — Cooking  Feeds — 
Effect  on  Compounding  the  Ration — Effect  on  Variety  and 
Protein — Effect  on  Water  Supply — Changes  in  Rations — 
Effect  on  Coefficient  of  Digestibility — Effect  on  Protein 
Metabolism — Effect  on  Habit — Giving  the  Pig  Its  Feed — 
The  Feed  Trough — The  Feed  Yard — Individual  Feeding — 
The  Number  of  Feeds  per  Day — Influence  on  Factor  of 
Waste— Results  146-197 

CHAPTER  14. — FEEDING  THE  HERD  AND  THE  PIGS. 
Feeding    Sows — Gilts — Old    Sows — Feeding    the    Boar — Feeding 
the  Pigs  Before  Weaning — Feeding  at  a  Separate  Trough — 
Feeding  with  the  Dam 19&-205 

PART    III.     MANAGEMENT. 

CHAPTER  15. — THE  BREEDING  SEASON. 

Number  of  Litters  per  Year — When  to  Breed — Show  Hogs — 
Market  Requirements — Pork  Hogs — Age  of  Gilts — Condi- 
tion of  Sire  and  Dam — Prolificacy — Useful  Age  of  Sire 
and  Dam — The  Sire — The  Dam — Breeding  the  Sow.  ....  .209-217 

CHAPTER   16. — FARROWING  TIME. 

Feeding  the  Sow  Before  and  After  Farrowing — The  Litter — 
How  Many  Pigs  per  Sow — Handling  the  Sow  and  Litter 
— Black  Teeth — Identification  Marks — Ear  Marks — Cas- 
tration— A  Normal  Pig — Ruptured  Pigs — Spaying — 
Recording — Herd  Records 218-235 

CHAPTER  17. — WEANING  THE  PIGS. 
Self-Weaning — Removing  a   Part   of   the   Litter — Removing  All 

the  Litter — Prolificacy  and  Milking  -Qualities 236-240 


TABLE  OF   CONTENTS.  7 

CHAPTER  18. — SHELTER  FOR  SWINE. 

The  Large  Hog  House — Serviceableness — Sanitation — Plan  of 
the  House — Interior  View — The  Floors — Cost  of  Hog 
House — Location  as  to  Pasture — Hog  House  and  Pastures 
— Use  of  the  Hog  House — Individual  Hog  Houses — 
A-Shaped  Cots,  Front  and  Rear — Large  Cot — A  Portable 
Panel  Fence — Method  of  Construction 241-266 

CHAPTER  19. — TUBERCULOSIS, 

Prevalence  of  the  Disease — Source  of  Infection — Skim  Milk — 
Country  Slaughter  Houses — Other  Means  of  Infection — 
Duration  of  the  Disease — Kind  of  Pigs  Affected — Method 
of  Handling  a  Tubercular  Herd 267-274 

CHAPTER  20. — HOG  CHOLERA. 

Cause  of  the  Disease — Manner  of  Spreading  the  Disease — Pre- 
vention of  the  Disease — Government  Hog  Cholera  Serum 
— Preparation,  Use  and  Curative  Properties  of  the  Serum 
— Objections  to  the  Serum  Method  of  Treatment 275-285 

CHAPTER    21. — LICE. 
Means   of   Combating — Mud    Wallow — Water   Wallow — Rubbing 

Post — Rubbing  and  Spraying  with  Oil — Dipping  Tank.  .  .286-293 

CHAPTER   22. — OTHER   AILMENTS  OF   SWINE. 

Worms :  Their  Cure  and  Prevention — Scours — Overfeeding — 
Sudden  Changes — Treatment — Contagious  Form — Rickets 
— Coughing — Rooting — Thumps  294-301 

CHAPTER  23. — MARKETING  SWINE. 
Demand  and   Supply  of  Hogs — Handling  and   Shipping  Hogs — 

Selling  Hogs   on   the   Market 302-310 


INDEX  OF  GUTS. 

HOGS  OF  THE  FAT  OR  LARD  TYPE 15 

HOGS  OF  THE  BACON  TYPE .17 

COMPARISON  OF  AGES  AND  WEIGHTS  OF  HOGS 24 

TAMWORTH   Sow    31 

LARGE  YORKSHIRE  Sow 33 

BERKSHIRE  Sow    35 

CHESTER  WHITE   Sow 39 

DUROC-JERSEY    SOW 41 

POLAND-CHINA    BOAR    44 

HAMPSHIRE    Sow    46 

CHESHIRE   Sow    48 

LARGE  BLACK  BOAR 50 

APPROXIMATE  IDEAL  LARD  TYPE .' 52 

ILLUSTRATING  DEGREES  IN  SWINE  BREEDING 108 

LITTER  MATES  FED  DIFFERENT  RATIONS 116 

GRAPHIC  SCHEME  FOR  PIG  FEEDING 144 

PIG  FEEDING  DATA  IN  LINES 148 

WATER  REQUIREMENT  OF  MARKET  PIGS 156 

WATER  REQUIREMENT  OF  BREEDING    PIGS 158 

PROTEIN  REQUIREMENT  OF  MARKET  PIGS 159 

PROTEIN  REQUIREMENT  OF  BREEDING  PIGS 159 

CARBOHYDRATE  REQUIREMENT  OF  MARKET  PIGS 160 

CARBOHYDRATE  REQUIREMENT  OF   BREEDING  PIGS 160 

FEED  TROUGHS  FOR  SWINE 190 

FEED  YARD  FOR  SWINE 192 

AN    EAR-MARKING    SYSTEM 225 

FORM  FOR  KEEPING  RECORDS  OF  BREEDING  SWINE 233 

SCHEME  FOR  DETAILED  RECORDS 234 

PROLIFICACY  AND  MILKING  QUALITIES 239 

HOG  HOUSE  AT  THE  ILLINOIS  EXPERIMENT  STATION 243 

PLAN  OF  HOG  HOUSE  AT  ILLINOIS  EXPERIMENT   STATION 248 

INTERIOR  VIEW  OF  HOG  HOUSE  AT  ILLINOIS  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 251 

HOG  HOUSE  WITH  PLAN  FOR  PASTURE 256 

FRONT  VIEW  OF  A-SHAPED  COT  FOR  SWINE 260 

REAR  VIEW  OF  A-SHAPED  COT  FOR  SWINE 261 

LARGE  COT  OR  HOUSE  FOR  SWINE ' 263 

PORTABLE  PANEL  FENCE  FOR  SWINE 264 

DIPPING  TANK  FOR  SWINE 290 


PART  I. 
Swine  Breeding. 


CHAPTER  I. 
SELECTION  OF  A  BREED. 

Which  is  the  best  breed?  This  question,  in  its  various 
forms,  is  the  one  that  is  usually  asked  first.  The  man  who 
is  intending  to  start  in  the  business  of  swine  husbandry 
seems  to  be  impressed  with  the  idea  that  the  selection  of 
a  breed  is  the  one  thing  above  everything  else  that  is  of 
primary  importance.  Prevailing  conditions  have  lent  con- 
siderable significance  to  this  idea.  But  the  condition  of 
the  herd,  the  conditions  under  which  it  is  kept,  as  well  as 
the  general  care  and  management,  are  often  of  greater  im- 
portance than  the  breed  itself.  Therefore,  the  herd  that 
is  in  the  best  hands  will  make  the  best  showing,  which 
will  usually  be  accredited  to  the  breed  and  not  to  the 
breeder. 

What  is  of  still  greater  importance  than  this  are  the 
individuals  that  are  selected  from  the  breed.  All  breeds 
are  composed  of  a  wide  range  of  individuals,  ranging  from 
very  superior  to  very  inferior,  which,  when  used  in  a 
breeding  herd,  will  produce  results  accordingly.  The 
breeder,  then,  who  has  the  best  individuals  of  a  given 
breed,  other  conditions  being  equal,  will  make  a  better 
showing  than  his  neighbor  who  has  a  different  breed  but 
not  as  good  individuals. 

A  consideration  of  prime  importance  in  the  selection 
of  a  breed  is  the  likes  and  dislikes  of  the  breeder.  One 
is  much  more  likely  to  succeed  with  animals  he  likes  and 
to  fail  with  other  animals  of  equal  merit  that  he  dislikes. 


14  SWINE 

Aside  from  a  man's  likes  and  dislikes,  and  aside  from 
other  general  considerations  which  are  applicable  in  all 
cases,  there  are  a  number  of  points  that  should  be  con- 
sidered in  selecting  a  breed. 

TYPE  OF  SWINE. 

Swine  in  general  are  classified  in  two  types :  First,  the 
fat  or  lard  hog;  second,  the  bacon  hog. 

The  Fat  or  Lard  Hog.— The  fat  or  lard  hog  as  shown 
in  Cut  1  is  the  one  that  has  been  developed  primarily  in 
the  corn  belt  of  the  United  States.  It  is  a  hog  that  has  a 
considerable  quantity  of  fat  or  lard  in  its  carcass.  To  be 
ideal  with  present  market  requirements  this  hog  should 
not  carry  an  excess  of  fat.  It  should  have  different  quan- 
tities of  fat  or  lard  for  different  purposes,  but  this  must 
be  laid  on  smoothly  and  evenly.  The  hog  in  general 
should  be  long,  broad,  deep,  even  in  depth  and  width, 
thick  in  flesh,  smooth  and  symmetrical  throughout.  It 
should  also  have  strong  straight  legs  of  medium  length, 
and  a  neck  of  sufficient  thickness  to  join  the  head  to  the 
body  smoothly. 

The  Bacon  Hog. — The  bacon  hog,  as  shown  in  Cut  2, 
page  17,  is  one  that  has  relatively  more  lean  meat  and  not 
so  much  fat  as  the  fat  or  lard  hog.  By  the  term  bacon 
hog  in  general  is  meant  the  English  bacon  hog,  which  is 
produced  principally  in  Great  Britain,  Denmark  and  Can- 
ada. He  is  grown  primarily  for  the  production  of  high 
class  bacon.  In  the  case  of  fat  or  lard  hogs  only  the  sides 
of  the  hog  are  used  for  bacon  purposes.  With  strictly 
bacon  hogs  the  shoulder  and  ham  are  many  times  also 
included,  in  which  case  it  takes  the  entire  half  of  the  hog. 
This  is  cured  with  salt  and  then  smoked.  Since  the  side 
of  the  hog  between  the  shoulder  and  the  ham  is  best 


SELECTION   OF  A  BREED 


15 


16  SWINE 

adapted  to  the  production  of  bacon,  the  development  of 
this  part  of  the  hog  is  especially  emphasized. 

The  bacon  hog,  then,  is  one  of  great  length  and  depth 
of  body,  with  good  quality  and  smoothness  throughout; 
\vith  medium  width  of  body  and  thickness  of  flesh ;  with 
light  neck  and  no  excess  of  fat  at  any  point.  It  should 
have  a  covering  of  fat  on  the  outside  of  its  carcass  of 
about  one  and  one-half  inches  in  thickness,  and  have  an 
abundance  of  lean  meat  throughout. 

The  weight  of  this  hog  must  be  between  160  and  200 
pounds.  The  ideal  weight  is  between  180  and  200  pounds. 
These  weights  are  desirable  for  various  reasons.  A  hog 
lighter  than  this  is  likely  to  be  too  young  to  furnish  meat 
of  the  best  flavor  and  quality ;  a  heavier  hog  would  prob- 
ably be  too  fat  because  the  tendency  of  a  hog  to  take 
on  fat,  under  present  conditions  of  feeding,  is  relatively 
greater  after  this  weight  has  been  passed.  If  a  hog  is 
heavier  and  not  too  fat,  this  shows  that  it  was  not  well 
enough  fed  to  furnish  the  best  kind  of  a  carcass.  Further- 
more, the  size  of  the  cut  of  bacon  is  an  important  con- 
sideration. Hogs  of  the  mentioned  weights  furnish  the 
most  desirable  cuts. 

Bacon  hogs  that  are  handled  in  general  by  the  markets 
of  the  United  States  are  not  of  this  type.  They  are  a 
mean  between  the  English  bacon  hog  and  the  fat  or  lard 
hog,  and  are  usually  selected  from  the  lighter  hogs  of  the 
fat  or  lard  type.  They  are  not  quite  as  heavy  as  the 
English  bacon  hog  because  their  tendency  to  fatten  is 
greater.  They  weigh  between  155  and  195  pounds. 

Production  of  Type. — Different  conditions  of  both  feed 
and  care  will  in  time  produce  swine  of  different  types. 
Different  markets  also  require  a  product  of  various  types. . 
Hence  in  order  to  take  the  inevitable  result  of  prevailing 


SELECTION   OF   A  BREED 


17 


18  SWINE 

conditions  and  to  supply  the  market  demand,  various 
types  of  swine  are  produced.  In  general,  the  corn  belt  of 
the  United  States,  where  an  abundance  of  corn  is  pro- 
duced and  not  very  much  other  feed,  is  pre-eminently 
adapted  to  the  production  of  the  fat  or  lard  hog.  Corn  is 
a  carbonaceous  feed,  one  that  will  produce  fat  and  energy 
principally,  and  will  naturally  make  a  hog  that  has  a 
greater  proportion  of  lard.  It  is  true  that  a  hog  cannot 
develop  at  all  if  it  is  fed  nothing  but  carbohydrate,  but 
corn  has  a  little  protein  or  muscle-forming  ingredients, 
and  consequently  will  allow  a  hog  to  develop  the  lean 
meat  part  of  his  carcass  to  a  slight  extent,  especially  if 
corn  is  fed  in  connection  with  some  other  feed,  even 
though  it  be  only  grass.  But  with  the  preponderance  of 
fat-forming  ingredients  in  corn,  the  hog  will  naturally 
develop  this  part  of  its  carcass  excessively. 

Outside  of  the  corn  belt  where  corn  is  less  abundant, 
and  other  feeds  are  more  abundant,  more  protein  will  be 
supplied  as  well  as  more  exercise,  and  the  conditions  are 
more  favorable  to  the  production  of  bacon  hogs.  Feeds 
other  than  corn  usually  have  more  protein ;  furthermore, 
they  are  not  so  concentrated, — that  is,  do  not  have  quite 
so  much  digestible  nutrients  per  given  bulk  of  feed. 
Such  conditions  will  allow  the  lean  meat,  or  the  protein 
part  of  the  carcass,  to  develop  relatively  more  and  the  fat 
part  of  the  carcass  relatively  less.  For  immediate  results, 
however,  a  breed  should  be  selected  that  will  furnish  the 
type  of  hog  desired  by  the  breeder. 

LOCATION. 

In  organizing  a  swine  farm  and  in  selecting  a  breed, 
the  location  should  be  taken  into  consideration.  The 
adaptability  of  the  country  for  swine  production  is  a 


SELECTION   OF  A   BREED  19 

point  of  considerable  importance.  To  be  well  adapted  to 
such  a  purpose  the  season  should  be  neither  too  hot  nor 
too  cold.  If  swine  are  to  be  subjected  to  such  variations, 
the  heat  should  be  counterbalanced  by  providing  'an 
abundance  of  shade.  There  is  no  better  shade  than  the 
natural  shade  of  trees,  and  in  cold  weather  comfortable 
shelter  should  also  be  provided. 

The  character  of  the  soil  should  also  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration. Soil  that  is  rich  in  mineral  matter  is  better 
adapted  to  the  production  of  hogs  than  one  that  is  not. 
The  mineral  ingredients  also  should  be  of  various  kinds 
especially  containing  lime  and  phosphorus.  A  hog  needs 
a  variety  of  mineral  substances  for  the  normal  working  of 
his  digestion,  assimilation,  etc. ;  also  for  the  production  of 
bone.  If  these  mineral  substances  are  present  in  the  soil, 
they  will  be  more  abundant  in  the  soil  water  and  also  in 
the  vegetation  grown  on  the  soil.  Hence  the  hog  will 
develop  better  than  he  will  on  soil  where  such  mineral 
substances  are  not  present.  It  is  true  that  these  mineral 
substances  may  be  supplied  artificially,  but  this  is  never 
quite  as  good  as  when  they  are  found  in  the  natural  state. 

In  selecting  a  breed  the  natural  tendency  of  the  de- 
velopment of  swine,  as  caused  by  various  conditions, 
should  be  taken  into  consideration.  The  mistake  is  very 
often  made  by  a  man  locating  in  the  corn  belt  to  select  a 
hog  that  is  short,  fat,  and  early  maturing;  a  type  of  hog 
that  is  the  natural  product  of  corn  belt  conditions  and  is 
already  overdone.  Such  a  hog  might  prove  a  failure  un- 
der these  conditions,  while  one  of  another  type  would  be 
much  more  successful.  Hogs  developed  in  the  corn  belt 
where  the  carbonaceous  feeds  are  more  abundant  and  the 
mineral  and  protein  feeds  are  more  or  less  deficient,  have 
a  natural  tendency  to  become  fat  and  to  lose  size  and  pro- 


20  SWINE 

lificacy.  Consequently  hogs  that  are  selected  for  corn 
belt  conditions  should  have  all  of  these  points  well  de- 
veloped. They  should  be  large,  rangy,  strong  in  consti- 
tution and  vitality,  and  should  be  active  and  prolific.  A 
few  generations  of  feeding  may  change  a  hog  from  one 
type  to  the  other,  and  a  man  who  has  not  the  ability  to 
mold  a  type  according  to  his  own  ideals  ought  to  select 
hogs  to  begin  with  that  are  best  adapted  to  the  condi- 
tions under  which  they  are  to  be  grown. 

COLOR  OF  SWINE. 

The  color  of  the  hog  should  have  some  consideration 
in  selecting  a  breed.  As  is  quite  generally  known,  the 
black  or  dark-skinned  hog  is  better  able  to  withstand  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun  than  is  the  white  hog.  In  other 
words,  the  white  hog  is  more  subject  to  sun-scald,  blis- 
ters, and  consequently  to  skin  diseases  of  various  forms, 
than  the  black  hog.  The  reason  for  this  apparently  is  that 
the  black  cuticle  of  the  black  hog  absorbs  the  rays  coming 
from  the  sun,  whether  they  be  heat  rays,  the  light  rays,  or 
the  actinic  (chemically  active)  rays,  while  the  cuticle  of 
the  white  hog  allows  them  to  pass  through. 

In  order  to  develop  a  possible  explanation  for  the  above 
mentioned  fact,  namely, — that  a  white  hog  cannot  with- 
stand the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  as  well  as  a  black  hog, — it 
is  discussed  from  the  standpoint  of  the  heat  rays.  Never- 
theless, the  other  rays  may  act  in  a  similar  manner. 

It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  a  black  object  lying  in  the 
sun  becomes  hotter  than  an  object  of  a  lighter  color.  The 
color  of  the  hog  is  in  the  cuticle.  This  is  also  a  well 
known  fact  because  all  hogs,  either  black,  red,  or  white, 
are  white  after  being  dressed.  The  cuticle  which  carries 
the  pigment  is  taken  off  in  such  an  operation.  The  cuticle 


SELECTION  OF  A  BREED  21 

of  the  hog,  therefore,  is  not  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word, 
a  part  of  the  animal.  It  is  outside  of  its  circulatory  and 
nervous  systems  and  it  therefore  does  not  matter  much 
whether  this  part  of  the  animal  becomes  heated  or  not. 
The  cuticle,  as  well  as  the  true  skin,  of  the  hog  is  of  such 
a  nature  that  it  is  not  a  reflector  like  a  mirror;  it  is  not 
a  polished  surface,  but  will  allow  the  rays  of  the  sun 
either  to  pass  through  it  or  to  be  absorbed.  The  white 
cuticle,  since  it  is  not  a  reflector,  will  allow  the  rays  to 
pass  through ;  the  black  cuticle,  being  dark,  will  act  as  an 
absorbent.  The  cuticle  of  the  black  hog,  then,  which  ab- 
sorbs the  heat  of  the  sun,  apparently  plays  the  double 
part  of  conductor  and  radiator.  This  part  being  hotter 
than  the  adjacent  portions  of  the  carcass,  part  of  the  heat 
will  be  conducted  into  the  body  of  the  hog,  another  part 
will  be  conducted  to  adjacent  particles  of  air,  and  still 
more  will  be  radiated  into  space.  Thus  the  black  hog 
gets  only  a  part  of  the  heat  from  the  sun  in  the  interior 
of  his  body,  while  the  white  hog,  whose  cuticle  is 
neither  a  reflector  nor  an  absorbent,  gets  the  bulk  of  the 
heat  from  the  sun  in  the  living  part  of  its  carcass.  This 
apparently  is  detrimental  and  is  responsible  for  the  fact 
that  white  hogs  are  not  as  adaptable  to  hot  climates  hav- 
ing a  great  deal  of  sunlight  as  black  hogs. 

In  general,  then,  white  hogs  may  be  selected  for  north- 
ern climates,  but  the  dark  breeds,  either  red  or  black, 
should  be  selected  for  southern  climates.  Of  course  if 
southern  climates  have  very  little  sunshine,  or  if  the  hogs 
are  well  provided  with  shade,  the  white  hog  will  still  do 
very  well  in  the  south.  Furthermore,  if  the  northern 
climates  have  an  abundance  of  sunlight,  the  white  hog 
would  also  be  handicapped  in  such  places. 


22  SWINE 

Since  a  hog  does  not  sweat  it  is  very  easily  overcome 
by  heat  even  though  it  is  not  from  the  direct  rays  of  the 
sun.  This  is  applicable  to  hogs  of  all  colors  and  should  be 
carefully  considered  in  providing  a  place  for  swine. 

ADVANTAGES  IN  MARKETING. 

In  selecting  a  breed  proper  consideration  should  always 
be  given  to  the  way  in  which  the  hogs  are  to  be  taken  to 
market.  If  the  farm  is  a  considerable  distance  from  the 
shipping  station,  and  the  hogs  are  to  be  driven  to  market, 
it  would  be  well  to  take  into  consideration  the  ability  of 
the  hog  to  walk  after  he  is  in  prime  condition.  In  pro- 
ducing market  hogs  it  is  well  to  have  all  the  hogs  of  a 
community  of  the  same  type  and  color  because  a  uniform 
bunch  of  hogs  sells  to  better  advantage  than  a  mixed 
bunch.  Of  course  if  a  breeder  is  working  on  a  large 
enough  scale  to  ship  his  own  hogs  in  carload  lots,  he  is 
more  independent  than  his  neighbor  who  has  only  a  few. 

If  pure-bred  hogs  are  to  be  produced,  both  the  ship- 
ping facilities  and  the  demand  for  such  hogs  are  to  be 
taken  into  consideration.  If  the  breeder  is  to  produce 
hogs  for  local  demand,  he  should  take  into  consideration 
what  such  demand  is  and  produce  hogs  accordingly.  If 
the  demand  is  for  hogs  of  one  breed  and  he  produces  an- 
other, he  would  naturally  not  get  much  trade.  If  the 
pure-bred  breeder  is  producing  hogs  for  the  national 
trade,  railroad  facilities  are  of  considerable  importance. 
He  should  have  good  railroad  connections  with  all  parts 
of  the  country  to  furnish  easy  access  to  buyers  and  to 
facilitate  correspondence  and  shipment  by  express. 


CHAPTER  II. 
SIZE,  PROLIFICACY  AND  QUALITY. 

Three  of  the  most  important  considerations  from  the 
farmer's  or  economical  standpoint  that  should  be  duly 
considered,  are  first,  size;  second,  prolificacy,  and  third, 
quality.  The  size  of  a  hog  is  a  point  that  very  often  is 
not  given  due  consideration.  In  general  the  hog  market 
pays  a  premium  for  hogs  that  weigh  from  175  to  300 
pounds.  With  this  in  view,  it  very  often  is  said  that  it  is 
not  necessary  to  have  animals  in  the  breeding  herd  that 
weigh  600,  700,  or  even  900  pounds.  This,  however,  is 
a  very  superficial  viewpoint. 

SIZE  AND  AGE  OF  HOGS. 

Cut  No.  3  on  the  next  page  was  made  up  from  the  aver- 
age of  a  large  number  of  comparatively  short  feeding 
trials  compiled  by  Henry,  plus  the  assumption  that  the 
pig  comes  to  maturity  at  18  months  of  age.  This  is  not 
the  same  as  it  would  be  from  one  continuous  test.  How- 
ever, it  affords  a  nice  illustration.  The  vertical  lines  rep- 
resent the  age  of  the  pig  by  months  from  1  to  18  inclusive, 
as  shown  at  the  top.  The  horizontal  lines  of  Fig.  1  rep- 
resent pounds  as  indicated  by  the  figures  at  the  right; 
the  base  line  is  zero,  the  second  line  is  100  pounds,  the 
third  line  is  200  pounds,  the  fourth  line  300  pounds,  and 
the  upper  line  400  pounds.  The  shaded  area  is  supposed 
to  represent  the  live  weight  of  the  pig. 

Rate  of  Growth. — It  will  be  seen  from  the  illustration 
that  the  pig  does  not  make  very  rapid  progress  in  live 


24 


SWINE 


weight  during  the  first  two  months.  This,  however,  is 
not  due  to  the  fact  that  he  is  not  an  economical  producer. 
It  is  a  well  Itnown  fact  that  pigs  in  general,  as  they  get 
older,  make  smaller  gains  per  100  pounds  live  weight. 
During  the  third  month's  growth,  as  represented,  the  live 
weight  of  the  pig  rises  a  little  more  rapidly.  During  the 
fourth  month  it  continues  to  rise  more  rapidly,  and  during 
the  fifth,  sixth  and  seventh  months  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
pig  gains  50  pounds  each  month.  Following  the  seventh 


12348678 


11  12  13   14  15  16   17 


18  MO. 

•oo  Ib. 


CUT  3.— COMPARISON  OF  AGES   AND   WEIGHTS  OF   HOGS. 

month  it  takes  two  months,  or  60  days,  to  add  50  pounds, 
and  the  next  50  pounds  is  put  on  in  three  months'  time, 
from  10  to  13.  As  maturity  is  approached  it  takes  the 
pig  six  months'  time  to  put  on  the  last  50  pounds  in  live 
weight. 

Total  Feed  Eaten  and  Cost  Per  Pound  Gain.— The  sec- 
ond section  of  this  cut  shows  the  total  amount  of  feed 
eaten  by  pigs  of  various  ages,  as  shown  by  the  figures  rep- 
resenting months  at  the  top  of  the  cut.  It  will  be  seen 


SIZE,  PROLIFICACY  AND   QUALITY  25 

from  this  that  during  the  fourth  and  fifth  months  of  the 
life  of  the  pig,  he  has  eaten  an  average  of  about  four 
pounds  of  feed  per  day.  This  is  on  the  basis  of  dry  feed 
such  as  corn,  barley,  middlings,  and  other  grains  that 
may  be  fed.  Considering  this  in  connection  with  the  live 
weight  given  above,  it  will  be  seen  that  a  pig  eating  four 
pounds  of  feed  per  day  for  one  month  of  thirty  days,  will 
require  120  pounds  of  feed  for  the  50  pounds  gained  in 
live  weight,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1  of  the  cut.  At  this  rate 
the  pig  is  making  pork  at  a  cost  of  2.4  pounds  of  feed 
for  every  pound  of  pork  produced.  Figuring  the  feed  at 
one  cent  per  pound,  it  will  be  seen  that  pork  at  this  time 
in  the  life  of  the  pig  can  be  made  at  2.4  cents  per  pound. 

Considering  the  age  of  the  pig  from  ten  to  twelve 
months  inclusive,  where  it  takes  three  months  to  add  50 
pounds  in  live  weight,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1,  it  will  be  seen 
from  Fig.  2  of  the  cut  that  he  is  eating  more  than  seven 
pounds  of  feed  daily.  Assuming  that  he  would  require 
only  seven  pounds  per  day  for  three  months,  he  would 
require  under  the  conditions  taken  for  Fig.  1  630  pounds 
of  feed  to  put  on  50  pounds  of  gain  in  live  weight.  This 
would  be  at  the  rate  of  12.6  pounds  of  feed  for  every 
pound  of  gain  made  and  at  the  prices  given  above  for 
feed,  the  pork  would  have  cost  12.6  cents  per  pound. 

From  this  it  should  be  quite  evident  what  the  signifi- 
cance of  large  breeding  stock  is,  even  though  market  hogs 
are  sold  to  the  best  advantage  when  they  weigh  from  175 
to  300  pounds.  The  reason  that  the  gains  are  so  expen- 
sive with  the  average  hog  after  nine  months  of  age  is  be- 
cause he  is  approaching  maturity  too  rapidly.  Under 
such  conditions  the  pig  requires  more  for  absolute  main- 
tenance because  he  is  much  heavier  than  he  was  previ- 
ously, and  from  the  curve  indicating  the  total  amount 


26  SWINE 

of  feed  eaten  in  Fig.  2  of  the  cut,  it  is  seen  that  after  nine 
months  of  age  the  pig  does  not  eat  much  more  feed  than 
previously  in  absolute  quantity.  When  calculated  in  feed 
eaten  per  hundred  pounds  live  weight,  Fig.  3  of  the  cut 
illustrates  very  conclusively  what  happens. 

Feed  Eaten  Per  Hundred  Pounds  Live  Weight. — Sec- 
tion 3  of  the  same  cut  shows  that  when  the  pig  is  three 
months  old  he  is  eating  almost  six  pounds  of  feed  daily 
per  hundred  pounds  of  live  weight.  This  decreases  quite 
rapidly  for  several  months,  and  then  more  slowly,  until 
only  2.35  pounds  of  feed  is  eaten  daily  per  hundred  pounds 
live  weight  by  a  pig  that  is  12  months  old.  On  the  basis 
of  100  pounds  live  weight  this  shows  that  the  older  the 
pig,  the  smaller  is  the  quantity  of  feed  eaten.  Even 
though  the  total  amount  of  feed  required  for  maintenance 
per  hundred  pounds  live  weight  does  not  increase,  there 
is  the  factor  of  waste,  which  will  be  explained  later,  that 
does  increase,  which,  together  with  the  fact  that  the  pig 
gradually  eats  a  smaller  amount  as  he  gets  older,  makes 
the  gains  much  more  expensive.  The  more  nearly  ma- 
turity is  approached  the  more  expensive  these  gains  be- 
come. Consequently  the  larger  the  breeding  stock  the 
earlier  will  be  the  age  at  which  market  hogs  reach  the 
desired  weight  and  the  more  economical  will  be  the 
gains;  therefore,  the  greater  will  be  the  profit. 

Maturity. — A  hog  that  cannot  be  put  into  good  market 
condition  until  it  comes  to  maturity  is  not  a  desirable 
animal  because  maturity  in  general  is  not  attained  until 
about  two  years  of  age.  During  past  decades  early  ma- 
turity was  a  point  of  prime  significance  in  the  minds  of 
breeders,  and  this  characteristic  was  developed  to  such 
an  extent  that  many  hogs  of  today  are  not  as  large  or  as 
profitable  producers  of  pork  as  their  ancestors  were.  The 


SIZE,  PROLIFICACY  AND  QUALITY  27 

breeds  of  today  in  general  are  of  such  a  character  that 
hogs  may  be  put  into  desirable  market  condition  at  al- 
most any  age  during  early  life,  and  the  trouble  in  many 
cases  is  that  they  come  to  maturity  too  soon.  With  this 
in  view  it  is  easy  to  see  that  for  most  profitable  pork 
production  the  time  at  which  a  hog  comes  to  maturity 
should  be  extended  as  far  as  is  consistent  with  good  form 
and  quality.  Early  maturity  in  general  is  brought  about 
by  feeding  an  excess  of  non-nitrogenous  nutrients  or  by 
sudden  changes  from  nitrogenous  to  non-nitrogenous 
feeds. 

By  feeding  an  excess  of  non-nitrogenous  nutrients  the 
pig  does  not  have  sufficient  protein  upon  which  to  make 
extended  growth ;  therefore,  he  will  lay  on  fat  and  discon- 
tinue to  grow,  which  will  produce  a  developed  hog  at  an 
early  age.  By  sudden  changes  from  nitrogenous  to  non- 
nitrogenous  feeds,  a  relatively  high  rate  of  waste  results 
for  the  time  being  and  must  be  supplied  first,  principally 
from  the  crude  protein  of  the  ration,  thus  leaving  but  lit- 
tle for  the  growth  of  the  pig.  At  the  same  time  the  pig 
will  lay  on  fat  from  the  non-nitrogenous  part  of  the  ration, 
which  results  in  the  same  thing  as  above, — namely,  early 
maturity. 

PROLIFICACY. 

Prolificacy  is  a  valuable  point  in  any  breed.  The  brood 
sow  that  will  produce  twelve  pigs  and  raise  ten  to  a  litter 
is  more  than  twice  as  valuable  as  the  sow  that  will  pro- 
duce seven  pigs  and  raise  five.  If  the  one  that  raises  five 
pigs  per  litter  will  pay  expenses,  then  the  one  that  raises 
ten  pigs  will  have  five  pigs  for  the  profit  of  her  owner. 

Prolificacy,  although  more  or  less  an  inherited  char- 
acteristic, is  very  largely  controlled  by  the  condition  of 


28  SWINE 

feed  and  care  of  the  sow.  The  term  prolificacy  is  used  to 
apply  to  the  number  of  pigs  farrowed.  What  is  of  equal 
importance  is  that  the  sow  farrows  live  pigs  and  that  she 
raise  a  large  percentage  of  those  farrowed.  These  points 
also  are  influenced  largely  by  the  conditions  under  the 
control  of  breeder  and  feeder.  This  is  discussed  later. 

Apart  from  this  it  is  believed  that  there  is  a  correla- 
tion between  conformation  and  prolificacy;  that  is,  hogs 
selected  in  accordance  with  the  ideal  set  forth  in  Chap- 
ter IV  will  produce  more  pigs  per  litter  than  those  that 
are  not  so  well  formed.  Three  Poland-China  gilts,  litter- 
mates,  placed  in  accordance  with  this  standard  farrowed 
pigs  in  their  first  litters  as  follows :  No.  1,  nine  pigs;  No. 
2,  five;  and  No.  3,  one  pig.  The  result  with  six  Chester 
White  gilts,  all  from  the  same  litter,  was  as  follows: 
Nos.  1,  2,  3  and  4  combined  farrowed  35  pigs  and  Nos. 
5  and  6  combined  farrowed  10  pigs.  This  may  have  been 
partly  accidental,  but  other  instances  like  this  have  come 
to  notice. 

QUALITY. 

The  term  quality  as  used  in  connection  with  swine  is 
very  often  misinterpreted.  It  is  often  taken  to  mean 
everything  in  a  hog  that  is  good.  Correctly  speaking,  a 
hog  is  made  up  of  a  number  of  individual  points  such  as 
snout,  jowls,  eyes,  ears,  neck,  shoulders,  back,  sides,  ham 
and  feet,  which  when  put  together  constitute  what  is  or- 
dinarily called  form.  If  these  various  parts  have  proper 
conformation  in  themselves  and  are  properly  put  to- 
gether, thus  making  a  good  individual,  the  hog  is  said  to 
have  good  form.  If  the  hog  is  fat,  he  is  said  to  be  in 
good  or  high  condition.  If  he  is  lean,  he  is  said  to  be  in 
poor  condition,  provided  the  market  hog  is  under  consid- 
eration. In  the  breeding  hog  there  is  what  is  called 


SIZE,  PROLIFICACY   AND  QUALITY  29 

breeding  condition.  Hence,  there  are  two  principal 
points,  form  and  condition,  in  a  hog,  besides  quality. 

Quality  in  a  hog  should  be  considered  in  the  same  sense 
as  quality  in  a  piece  of  cloth.  When  a  piece  of  cloth  is 
coarse  and  made  of  poor  material,  it  is  said  to  be  of  poor 
quality.  When  it  is  finely  woven  of  high-class  material, 
it  is  said  to  have  fine  or  good  quality.  In  the  same  sense 
a  hog  is  of  fine  or  good  quality,  or  is  coarse  or  poor  in 
quality. 

In  general  a  hog  is  said  to  be  good  in  quality  when  the 
whole  appearance  is  that  of  smoothness  and  refinement 
rather  than  of  coarseness  and  ungainliness.  The  hair 
should  be  fine;  the  skin  smooth  and  fine  in  texture;  the 
bone  as  indicated  in  the  snout,  head  and  legs  should  be 
smooth,  and  not  too  large,  and  the  flesh  should  be  fine 
in  grain  and  show  considerable  firmness  together  with 
elasticity,  which  is  indicative  of  a  large  proportion  of  lean 
meat. 

In  order  to  be  the  best  kind  of  hog  for  the  farmer  as 
well  as  for  the  breeder,  the  hog  should  have  these  three 
characteristics  well  developed, — size,  prolificacy,  and 
quality.  Along  with  these  there  are  various  considera- 
tions that  come  under  the  head  of  form  as  well  as  con- 
dition which  should  be  duly  considered,  but  these  will  be 
taken  up  later. 


CHAPTER  III. 
PRINCIPAL  CHARACTERISTICS. 

BACON  BREEDS. 

Tamworth  Swine.— The  Tamworth  is  an  English  breed 
and  the  extreme  of  the  English  bacon  type  of  swine.  It 
is  a  large  hog  with  considerable  depth  of  body  and  not 
very  mu6h  width.  It  can  very  easily  be  made  to  weigh 
from  700  to  900  pounds  and  even  considerably  more.  It 
is  reported  that  in  recent  years  a  Tamworth  boar  killed  in 
England  weighed  1,607  pounds  live  and  1,330  pounds 
dressed  weight.  Hogs  of  this  breed  are  somewhat  high 
off  the  ground;  that  is,  have  quite  long  legs,  considered 
from  the  fat  or  lard  hog  standpoint,  and  have  a  snout 
that  is  rather  long  and  pointed,  The  neck  is  light  and 
muscular,  the  jowls  are  very  light,  and  the  ears  quite 
large  and  usually  upright.  The  edges  and  points  of  the 
ears  turn  backwards  and  are  bordered  with  a  fringe  of 
rather  long,  fine  hair.  While  the  legs  of  the  Tamworth 
are  long,  they  are  straight  and  very  strong  and  the  pas- 
terns are  somewhat  sloping. 

The  shoulders  are  light  and  set  in  the  body  smoothly, 
the  sides  are  long  and  deep,  and  the  hams  rather  broad. 
The  back  is  strong  and  even  in  width,  the  rump  is  long 
and  of  the  same  width  as  the  back,  with  the  tail,  which  is 
quite  long,  large  and  bushy  at  the  end,  set  on  moderately 
high.  The  color  of  the  Tamworth  is  a  red,  resulting  from 
a  golden  red  hair  on  a  flesh-colored  skin.  Occasionally 
there  appears  a  small  black  spot  on  the  skin,  which  may 

(30) 


PRINCIPAL   CHARACTERISTICS 


31 


32  SWINE 

also  be  covered  with  black  hair.  It  is  the  tendency  of 
breeders  to  breed  the  Tamworth  with  the  pure  red  color, 
but  the  policy  of  breeding  good  individuals,  even  if  they 
have  an  occasional  black  spot,  is  sound. 

In  constitution  the  Tamworth  is  exceptionally  well  de- 
veloped. The  breed  has  more  native  blood  in  it,  or  in 
other  words,  is  more  nearly  like  that  of  the  wild  boar, 
than  any  other  of  the  domestic  breeds.  The  chest  is  both 
broad  and  deep  and  many  individuals  may  be  found 
which  are  as  deep  in  the  chest,  sometimes  even  deeper, 
than  in  any  other  part  of  the  body.  This  unfortunately 
cannot  be  said  of  any  of  the  other  breeds  of  swine. 

Large  Yorkshire  Swine. — The  large  Yorkshire  is  very 
often  called  the  Improved  Large  Yorkshire.  The  term 
"Large"  is  necessary  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Small 
Yorkshire  or  the  Middle  Yorkshire.  These  breeds  are 
all  native  to  England  and  in  the  home  country  are  called 
Large  Whites,  Small  Whites,  and  Middle  Whites.  The 
Large  Yorkshire  is  a  bacon  hog,  while  the  Small  York- 
shire is  of  the  fat  or  lard  type,  and  the  Middle  Yorkshire 
is  a  medium  between  these.  While  the  Large  Yorkshire 
is  purely  a  bacon  hog,  it  is  not  quite  such  an  extreme 
bacon  type  as  the  Tamworth.  It  has  a  little  more 
width  of  body  or  thickness  of  covering  of  fat.  The  Large 
Yorkshire,  as  the  name  indicates,  is  also  a  rapidly  grow- 
ing hog,  and  together  with  its  size  carries  considerable 
quality;  hence  it  may  also  be  considered  as  an  early  ma- 
turing hog.  With  good  feeding  it  is  ready  for  market 
at  almost  any  age  after  reaching  a  desirable  weight. 

In  form  this  hog  is  long,  quite  deep  in  the  body  with  a 
snout  of  medium  length,  and  ears  and  tail  similar  in  form 
to  those  of  the  Tamworth.  The  legs  are  medium  in  length 
from  the  bacon  standpoint.  These,  however,  when  com- 


PRINCIPAL   CHARACTERISTICS 


33 


34  SWTNE 

pared  with  the  length  of  legs  of  the  fat  or  lard  hog  would 
be  considered  long.  In  chest  capacity  the  Large  York- 
shire is  very  good,  but  not  quite  as  good  as  the  Tarn- 
worth.  The  color  is  pure  white  except  that  there  are  oc- 
casional pale  blue  spots  on  the  skin,  and  where  these  ap- 
pear they  are  covered  with  white  hair.  At  times  they 
have  several  of  these  spots  or  occasionally  there  may  be 
quite  a  number  of  very  small  pale  blue  spots.  The  York- 
shire is  supposed  to  have  an  abundance  of  hair,  but  the 
coat  is  made  up  of  rather  long  straight  fine  hair  which 
lies  close  to  the  body.  Some  individuals,  however,  have 
a  coat  that  is  rather  thin.  One  characteristic  of  the  bacon 
hog  is  the  lightness  of  the  jowl.  The  Large  Yorkshire  has 
a  jowl  that  is  medium  in  size,  but  very  firm  and  smooth  ; 
still  its  jowls  are  light  when  compared  with  most  breeds 
of  the  fat  or  lard  type.  The  neck  of  the  Large  Yorkshire 
is  rather  long  and  light,  being  muscular,  but  not  fat.  This 
is  a  common  characteristic  of  bacon  hogs  in  general. 
Both  the  shoulders  and  the  hams,  as  viewed  by  standing 
at  the  side  of  the  hog  (horizontal  dimension),  are  nar- 
row, but  quite  long  (vertical  dimension).  The  sides  are 
extremely  long,  quite  deep,  and  well  covered  with  lean 
meat.  They  also  are  very  firm  and  good  in  quality. 

BREEDS  OF  THE  FAT  OR  LARD  TYPE. 

Berkshire  Swine. — The  Berkshire  is  considered  an 
English  hog.  The  breed  was  originated  and  de- 
veloped in  England  and  was  bred  there  for  many 
years  before  being  brought  into  the  United  States. 
Since  its  introduction  to  this  country,  the  breed 
has  been  continued  on  practically  the  same  lines  as 
previously,  but  it  is  said  that  the  American  Berkshire  is 
now  superior  to  his  English  relative.  During  the  earlier 


PRINCIPAL   CHARACTERISTICS 


35 


nlMH 


36  SWINE 

history  of  the  Berkshire,  American  breeders  improved 
their  herds  by  importing  specimens  from  England,  the 
original  home  of  the  breed. 

There  seem  to  be  a  few  possible  explanations  why  the 
American  breeder  should  have  surpassed  the  English 
breeder.  First,  the  breeders  of  England  who  were  for- 
merly noted  for  the  high  class  specimens  that  they  bred 
have  either  died  or  gone  out  of  the  business,  which  would 
naturally  leave  breeders  of  less  than  the  first  rank,  and  if 
none  other  appeared  in  the  field  with  equal  ability  as 
those  that  were  first  classed  as  the  best,  it  would  leave 
the  breeders  of  England  without  their  leaders,  or  without 
those  who  were  best  able  to  carry  on  the  business.  Sec- 
ond, in  the  United  States  hog  breeding  has  reached  such 
an  extensive  scale  that  the  possibility  of  outstanding  in- 
dividuals appearing  is  much  greater  than  in  England, 
where  breeding  is  done  less  extensively.  Also  a  few  out- 
standing American  breeders  have  made  considerable  ad- 
vancement. 

Although  the  Berkshire  is  classified  with  hogs  of  the 
fat  or  lard  type,  it  is  universally  considered  as  a  medium 
between  the  fat  or  lard  hog  and  the  bacon  hog.  In  Can- 
ada, where  bacon  hogs  are  produced  almost  exclusively, 
the  Berkshire  is  used  along  with  the  Tamworth  and  the 
Yorkshire.  In  the  United  States,  where  the  fat  or  lard 
hog  is  being  produced,  the  Berkshire  fills  the  bill  as  well, 
or  better  possibly,  than  any  of  the  other  breeds  used  for 
the  purpose. 

The  Berkshire  in  its  latest  improved  form  is  a  hog  that 
has  size,  prolificacy  and  quality  well  developed.  All 
breeds  show  a  considerable  degree  of  variation,  having 
individuals  that  are  good  and  individuals  that  are  inferior. 
Besides  this  most  breeds  that  are  being  bred  by  a  con- 


PRINCIPAL  CHARACTERISTICS  37 

siderable  number  of  breeders  show  considerable  variation 
in  type.  Every  breeder,  who  is  a  breeder  in  the  truest 
sense  of  the  word,  has  a  type  of  his  own  and  breeds  his 
hogs  accordingly;  hence  there  are  good  Berkshires  and 
bad  Berkshires;  there  are  Berkshires  of  good  type  and 
Berkshires  of  bad  type.  The  latest  improved  Berkshire 
is  a  hog  of  considerable  size.  One  of  the  principal  con- 
siderations that  goes  to  make  up  size  and  especially 
weight  is  the  length  of  body.  In  this  the  Berkshire  prob- 
ably excels  all  other  breeds  of  the  fat  or  lard  type.  Along 
with  the  length  of  body  it  has  a  strong  well-arched  back, 
even  width  and  good  depth  of  body,  broad  heavy  hams, 
light  smooth  well-set  shoulders,  excellent  feet  and  legs, 
standing  well  up  on  its  toes.  As  above  indicated  there 
are  many  Berkshires  that  do  not  have  this  required  length 
of  body,  and  in  fact  many  are  quite  short.  Others  are 
small  in  size,  but  these  should  not  be  selected. 

The  Berkshire  in  general  has  a  short  snout  with  a 
dished  face, — that  is,  the  snout  turns  up  rather  abruptly 
from  the  head.  When  the  hog  stands  with  his  head  up, 
the  end  of  his  snout  may  even  be  higher  than  the  point 
at  which  it  leaves  the  head.  The  tendency  of  breeders  at 
the  present  time  is  to  overdo  the  shortness  of  snout; 
it  has  become  a  fad,  and  the  snouts  of  many  Berkshires 
are  so  short  and  turn  up  so  much  that  it  is  difficult  for 
the  hog  to  eat  out  of  an  ordinary  trough.  Other  Berk- 
shires have  what  is  called  a  medium  snout;  they  still 
have  the  dished  face,  but  a  snout  that  is  not  so  short  as 
to  be  useless.  Some  also  have  a  rather  long  snout,  which 
is  not  considered  proper  form.  The  snout  of  the  Berk- 
shire as  a  rule  is  not  fine,  but  rather  heavy  and  some- 
what coarse,  which  is  an  indication  of  strength  and  vigor. 


38  SWINE 

The  general  color  of  the  Berkshire  is  black.  However, 
it  should  have,  to  be  strictly  ideal,  six  white  points,  which 
means  that  it  should  have  four  white  feet,  a  white  snout 
or  else  some  white  in  its  face,  and  a  white  switch, — that 
is,  the  end  of  its  tail  should  be  white.  While  color  mark- 
ings of  this  nature  are  desirable,  there  is  no  hard  and  fast 
rule  that  all  Berkshires  should  be  marked  just  this  way. 
Many  of  them  have  one,  two,  or  even  more  black  points, 
and  some  have  other  white  markings  besides  those  speci- 
fied. Either  too  much  white  or  too  little  white,  however, 
is  objectionable.  Too  much  is  worse  than  too  little. 

Chester  White  Swine.— The  Chester  White  is  an 
American  white  hog.  There  are  different  strains  such 
as  the  Chester  White  and  the  O.  I.  C.,  meaning  Ohio 
Improved  Chester.  Some  of  these  hogs  sometimes  have 
a  few  black  spots  in  the  skin,  which  may  or  may  not 
be  covered  with  black  hair.  Some  breeders  of  the  two 
strains  of  Chester  Whites  think  that  they  have  different 
breeds  of  hogs.  Nevertheless,  when  shown  at  the  vari- 
ous state  fairs  and  other  shows,  they  show  in  the  same 
class  and  when  viewed  by  the  general  public  there  is  no 
appreciable  difference  between  the  different  strains. 

In  size  the  Chester  'White  ranges  from  a  large  hog  to 
one  of  medium  size.  They  are  strictly  of  the  fat  or  lard 
type,  producing  a  relatively  large  proportion  of  fat  meat 
to  the  amount  of  lean  meat  in  the  carcass.  The  Chester 
White  as  a  whole  is  not  very  long  in  the  body,  blocky  in 
form,  having  heavy  hams,  smooth  shoulders,  broad  back 
and  is  well  filled  and  smooth  throughout,  and  stands  up 
well  on  its  feet  and  legs.  The  snout  is  medium  in  length, 
the  dish  between  the  snout  and  the  face  is  not  sharp,  but 
rather  medium,  and  the  snout  is  tapering  and  somewhat 
pointed.  The  cars  of  the  latest  improved  type  are  what 


PRINCIPAL    CHARACTERISTICS 


39 


40  SWINE 

is  called  fancy.  That  is,  the  ear  stands  upright  for  about 
two-thirds,  then  has  a  break,  allowing  the  tip  to  fall  over. 
The  ear  stands  forward  and  outward.  Some  of  the  best 
hogs  considered  strictly  from  the  fat  or  lard  hog  stand- 
point, are  found  among  Chester  Whites.  But  like  other 
breeds  it  also  has  inferior  specimens. 

Some  of  the  points  of  excellence  considered  in  favor 
of  the  Chester  Whites  are  that  they  are  excellent  feeders, 
growing  rapidly  and  making  good  use  of  the  feed  con- 
sumed. Also  that  the  carcasses  present  a  whiter  and 
more  pleasing  appearance  than  do  the  carcasses  of  black 
hogs.  This  is  true  because  if  any  part  of  the  cuticle  of  the 
white  hog  is  left  in  the  process  of  dressing,  it  is  white 
and  does  not  make  as  bad  an  appearance  as  a  spot  would 
in  the  case  of  the  black  hog.  Another  point  that  should 
be  taken  into  consideration  not  only  with  the  Chester 
Whites,  but  with  all  white  hogs,  is  that  in  order  to  have 
the  finest  appearing  carcasses  and  in  order  to  have  the 
hogs  sell  to  the  best  advantage  on  the  market,  they  must 
not  be  bruised  or  injured  before  being  sold.  The  white 
hog  will  show  a  bruise  much  more  readily  than  the  black 
hog.  Furthermore,  if  white  hogs  are  to  sell  to  the  best 
advantage,  all  the  hogs  in  the  drove  must  be  white.  A 
few  black  hogs  in  a  drove  of  white  hogs,  or  the  reverse, 
may  detract  more  from  the  selling  price  of  the  bunch  than 
they  individually  are  worth. 

Duroc-Jersey  Swine. — The  Duroc-Jersey,  an  Amer- 
ican breed,  is  a  red  hog  similar  in  color  to  the 
Tamworth.  It,  however,  is  not  so  uniformly  red. 
The  color  many  times,  especially  in  older  animals, 
is  rather  dark  and  sometimes  nearly  black.  Many 
individuals  are  also  quite  light  in  color,  approach- 
ing a  pale  yellow.  The  lighter  shades  are  more  easily 


PRINCIPAL   CHARACTERISTICS 


41 


,42  SWINE 

maintained  than  the  darker  shades.  The  Duroc-Jersey  in 
its  latest  improved  state  is  quite  a  modern  hog.  Origi- 
nally it  was  a  hog  of  good  length  of  body,  great  size,  and 
considerable  coarseness.  During  recent  years,  however, 
much  improvement  has  been  made  in  quality,  but  along 
with  this  has  come  a  reduction  in  size,  a  reduction  in  the 
length  of  body,  and  possibly  also  a  reduction  in  prolifi- 
cacy. Changes  along  these  lines  are  going  on  so  rapidly 
at  present  that  there  is  danger  of  its  being  overdone  be- 
fore the  pendulum  swings  in  the  other  direction. 

At  present  the  Duroc-Jerseys  are  rather  short  heavy- 
bodied  hogs,  with  legs  of  medium  length,  and  well  placed 
feet,  standing  straight  up  on  their  toes.  In  quality,  how- 
ever, they  are  still  somewhat  coarse,  having  a  coarse- 
grained flesh  that  is  also  made  up  very  largely  of  fat. 
The  hog  then  is  one  that  is  strictly  of  the  fat  or  lard 
type.  The  snout  of  the  Duroc-Jersey  is  medium  in  length 
with  a  slight  dish  in  the  face,  the  jowls  are  rather  heavy, 
the  ears  are  fancy, — that  is,  they  are  two-thirds  erect 
and  one-third  drooping,  and  extending  forward  and  out- 
ward. Formerly  the  ear  of  the  Duroc-Jersey  was  decid- 
edly coarse,  large  and  heavy,  hanging  down  over  the  eye. 
This  characteristic  is  still  prevalent  in  many  individuals. 
In  general  the  Duroc-Jersey  is  a  hog  that  is  thickly  cov- 
ered throughout,  having  a  broad  well-arched  back,  and 
thick  side  and  belly.  The  thick  covering  of  flesh,  how- 
ever, is  very  largely  fat.  The  ham  in  some  of  the  best  in- 
dividuals is  broad,  deep  and  full,  but  very  often  the  ham 
is  decidedly  light.  The  shoulders  may  be  very  fine, 
smooth -*md  well  set,  but  these  again  often  are  very  coarse 
and  heavy.  Coarseness  in  general  is  still  a  prominent 
characteristic  of  the  Duroc-Jersey,  but  the  process  of  re- 
finement is  going  on  so  rapidly  that  many  individuals 
may  be  said  to  have  good  or  fine  quality. 


PRINCIPAL   CHARACTERISTICS  43 

The  points  of  excellence  in  favor  of  the  Duroc-Jersey 
are  its  hardiness,  growthiness  and  prolificacy.  The  breed 
is  comparatively  new  in  its  present  state  of  development 
and  hence  has  considerable  of  the  strength  and  vitality 
that  is  so  prominent  in  the  wild  boar.  In  developing  size 
at  a  given  age  the  Duroc-Jersey  is  good,  though  not  bet- 
ter than  individuals  of  other  breeds. 

Poland-China  Swine. — The  Poland-China  is  a  typi- 
cal American  breed  developed  under  ideal  American  con- 
ditions. The  former  Poland-China  was  a  very  prolific 
large  spotted  hog  of  good  quality.  At  present  there 
are  two  distinct  types  in  the  breed.  The  principal  aim 
of  many  breeders  for  a  considerable  number  of  years  has 
been  to  develop  quality,  early  maturity,  and  smoothness 
of  form.  The  show  yard  set  the  standard  for  this  type 
and  the  breeders  have  followed  to  the  extent  that  the  Po- 
land-China in  this  particular  strain  became  so  much  re- 
duced in  size,  in  length  of  body,  and  in  prolificacy,  that 
the  usefulness  of  the  breed  for  pork  production  was  some- 
what impaired.  From  the  spotted  hog  which  originally 
existed  this  strain  was  developed  with  solid  black  color 
except  six  white  points. 

Many  of  the  breeders  having  recognized  the  fact  that 
this  strain  of  Poland-China  is  not  as  large  or  as  prolific 
as  it  used  to  be,  have  developed  the  other  extreme.  They 
have  refused  to  follow  the  standard  as  given  above  and 
are  breeding  hogs  with  size,  growthiness,  and  prolificacy, 
irrespective  of  many  of  the  fancy  points.  These  hogs  de- 
velop enormous  size,  but  are  somewhat  lacking  in  quality. 
Nevertheless  they  are  prolific  and  good  feeders. 

The  fine  quality  strain  of  the  Poland-China  is  what  may 
be  called  an  extra  fancy  type,  being  smooth  throughout, 
with  thick,  broad,  heavy  sides,  smooth  shoulders,  broad, 


44 


SWINE 


PRINCIPAL    CHARACTERISTICS  45 

heavy  plump  hams,  the  hams  extending  well  down  onto 
the  hock,  with  short  legs  and  upright  pasterns.  The  bone 
is  fine  throughout,  the  tail  fine,  the  head  and  ears  very 
neat  and  attractive,  and  the  quality  of  the  flesh  is  very 
good.  It  is,  however,  primarily  a  fat-producing  hog  and 
does  not  have  relatively  as  much  lean  meat  as  is  required 
for  bacon  purposes.  The  snout  is  medium  in  length,  ex- 
tending forward  and  downward  at  an  angle  of  about 
forty-five  degrees,  quite  straight  and  tapering.  The  ears 
are  fancy,  being  two-thirds  upright  and  one-third  droop- 
ing. The  neck  is  short,  well  filled,  deep  and  thick,  carry- 
ing the  upper  line  well  fonvard  toward  the  head.  The 
back  is  broad,  the  sides  are  full  and  deep,  and  the  body 
smooth  throughout. 

The  large  type  of  the  Poland-China  has  more  length  of 
body,  but  is  also  longer  in  the  legs,  and  has  heavier  ears. 
It  has  more  size  but  is  coarser  grained  in  flesh,  hence  is 
not  as  good  in  quality. 

Hampshire  Swine. — The  Hampshire,  formerly  called 
the  Thin  Rind,  is  an  American  breed  in  its  present 
state  of  development.  Originally  it  came  from  England, 
but  lost  its  identity  in  this  country  through  cross  breed- 
ing. Later  the  breed  was  developed  again  in  its  orig- 
inal form  and  now  occupies  a  prominent  place  among 
the  breeds  of  America.  Its  recent  development  has 
been  very  rapid.  The  hog  formerly  was  called  Thin 
Rind  on  account  of  the  fineness  of  its  skin  combined 
with  good  quality.  The  most  characteristic  feature  of 
this  hog  is  the  white  belt  it  has  across  its  body' includ- 
ing the  shoulder  and  front  legs,  while  the  rest  of  the 
hog  is  black.  Some  individuals  are  all  black.  By 
breeding  the  belted  Hampshire  there  is  a  tendency  for 
the  white  belt  to  increase  in  width.  When  this  occurs 


46 


SWINE 


if 


TJif 


PRINCIPAL   CHARACTERISTICS  47 

and  it  gets  too  wide,  the  breeders  usually  cross  with  a 
black  individual  to  get  the  white  belt  of  the  proper  di- 
mension, which  is  six  to  ten  inches  in  width. 

The  breed  is  sometimes  said  to  be  a  mean  between 
the  fat  or  lard  hog  and  the  bacon  hog,  but  more  generally 
it  is  considered  as  belonging  in  the  fat  or  lard  class. 
While  it  has  good  depth  of  body  and  smooth,  firm  sides, 
it  ordinarily  carries  tco  much  fat  to  be  considered  in  the 
bacon  class.  In  general  appearance  the  hog  is  rather  up- 
standing on  legs  that  are  fine,  but  of  good  quality  and 
strong,  with  pasterns  that  are  strong  and  upright.  The 
body  is  deep  and  not  very  broad ;  the  jowls  are  very  light, 
the  head  small,  the  snout  rather  straight  and  medium  in 
length.  The  head  is  narrow,  the  ears  set  close  and  ex- 
tending forward.  The  shoulders  are  smooth  and  well  set, 
the  back  is  strong  and  arched,  the  hams  are  long  and 
broad  but  not  very  thick.  (The  length  and  width  of  the 
ham  are  the  vertical  and  horizontal  dimensions  respec- 
tively taken  when  the  hog  stands.  The  thickness  is  the 
third  dimension.) 

Cheshire  Swine. — The  Cheshire,  or  Jefferson  County 
Hog  of  New  York,  was  developed  in  the  place  indicated 
by  its  name.  It  is  a  white  hog  of  quality.  In  form  it  is 
rather  long  and  cylindrical  in  body,  standing  on  legs  of 
considerable  length  that  are  fine  but  strong  in  bone.  The 
ears  are  short  and  upright,  the  snout  medium  in  length 
and  slender  with  a  slightly  dished  face.  The  hog  is 
smoothly  and  thickly  covered  throughout  with  flesh  of 
good  quality.  It  is  a  mean  between  the  bacon  and  fat 
or  lard  types,  but  is  more  often  considered  as  a  bacon 
hog.  It  is  somewhat  similar  except  in  color  and  snout  to 
the  Berkshire. 


48 


SWINE 


PRINCIPAL  CHARACTERISTICS  49 

Essex  Swine. — The  Essex  is  classed  as  a  small  hog  and 
is  representative  of  the  type  of  southern  Europe.  Its  color 
is  jet  black.  There  are  different  shades  of  color  repre- 
sented by  different  breeds.  The  Berkshire,  while  black  in 
general,  is  not  a  jet  black;  the  Poland-China  is  black, 
which  is  a  darker  shade  than  that  of  the  Berkshire,  but 
not  as  black  as  the  Essex;  but  the  Essex  is  jet  black  and 
has  no  white  on  it  whatever.  It  is  a  small  compact  hog, 
standing  on  short  legs.  It  may  briefly  be  described  as 
being  typical  of  the  fat  or  lard  type  except  that  it  is 
smaller  in  size.  On  account  of  the  way  the  breed  was 
established,  which  was  largely  by  inbreeding,  it  exhibits 
great  uniformity,  but  also  some  delicacy,  and  cannot 
stand  further  inbreeding. 

Other  Breeds. — Besides  the  above  mentioned  there  are 
minor  breeds  such  as  the  Small  Yorkshire,  Middle  York- 
shire, English  or  Black  Suffolk,  the  American  or  White 
Suffolk,  Victorias  by  F.  D.  Curtis  of  Charleton,  Saratoga 
County,  New  York;  Victorias  by  G.  F.  Davis  of  Dyer, 
Indiana.  The  hogs  of  these  breeds,  however,  are  not 
numerous  enough  to  warrant  further  discussion. 

Besides  these  there  is  the  mule-footed  hog,  which  is 
characterized  by  having  a  solid  instead  of  a  cloven  hoof. 

There  are  two  other  English  breeds  that  have  come  into 
prominence  in  England  during  recent  years;  they  are 
the  Large  Black  Hog  and  the  Lincolnshire  Curly 
White.  The  Large  Blacks  are  a  long  bodied,  large,  rather 
coarse  hog  with  heavy  lopped  ears.  They  are  of  the 
bacon  type  and  are  good  feeders  and  good  scavengers; 
also  grazers.  The  latter  is  also  considered  of  the  bacon 
type,  but  is  really  more  of  the  fat  or  lard  type,  being  more 
compact,  closer  to  the  ground,  heavier  set  and  thicker 
throughout.  It  has  a  white  curly  coat  of  hair.  The  fol- 
lowing cut  shows  the  Large  Black. 


50 


SWINE 


CHAPTER  IV. 
JUDGING   SWINE. 

Before  being  able  to  select  a  breeding  herd  properly, 
and  much  more  before  being  able  to  carry  on  breeding 
operations  intelligently,  a  man  must  have  the  ability  to 
select  the  best  individuals.  The  more  of  this  ability  he 
has,  the  better  able  he  will  be  to  succeed  in  this  work. 

Although  the  individuals  of  different  breeds  within  a 
given  type  are  apparently  different  in  conformation,  they 
are  in  the  main  essentially  the  same.  At  least  the  ideal 
toward  which  the  different  breeds  are  being  developed 
is  practically  the  same  with  a  few  minor  exceptions.  The 
points  in  which  the  different  breeds  of  either  type  primar- 
ily differ  are  color,  length  and  shape  of  snout,  and  the  po- 
sition and  form  of  the  ear.  Aside  from  these  there  are 
a  few  other  differences  which  cannot  really  be  said  to  be 
breed  differences,  such  as  length  of  body,  length  of  legs, 
shape  of  head.  These  same  differences  that  are  found 
between  different  breeds  are  also  noted  between  individ- 
uals of  the  same  breed.  Consequently  in  order  to  illus- 
trate the  fat  or  lard  type  it  would  not  be  necessary  to  pre- 
sent more  than  one  illustration  which,  with  the  necessary 
modifications  about  the  head,  would  answer  the  purpose 
for  all  breeds  of  this  class.  However,  two  cuts  are  pre- 
sented as  follows,  illustrating  the  Berkshire  and  Poland- 
China.  These,  as  before  stated,  by  imagining  a  different 
shaped  snout  and  ear,  will  answer  the  purpose  for  all 
other  breeds  of  this  type. 

(51) 


52 


SWINE 


FAT  OR  LARD  TYPE. 

The  cuts  below  were  not  made  from  photographs,  but 
from  drawings,  and  an  attempt  was  made  to  represent 


CUT  13. — APPROXIMATE  IDEAL  LARD  TYPE. 


CUT  14.— APPROXIMATE  IDEAL  LARD  TYPE. 

the  hog  in  as  nearly  ideal  form  as  possible.  To  facilitate 
matters  still  further  the  standards  of  excellence  used  by 
the  writer  to  teach  swine  judging  at  the  University  of  Illi- 


JUDGING  SWINE  53 

nois  are  presented  herewith.  These  also  have  been  pre- 
pared to  answer  the  purpose  for  all  hogs  of  the  fat  or  lard 
and  also  the  bacon  type,  and  may  be  used  for  the  various 
breeds  with  proper  consideration  of  the  points  wherein 
they  differ.  The  immediately  following  standard  of  ex- 
cellence was  prepared  especially  for  hogs  that  are  in- 
tended for  breeding  purposes  and  is  not  intended  for 
judging  market  hogs. 
Fat  or  Lard  Hogs  for  Breeding. 

STANDARD  OF  EXCELLENCE.  Perfect 

Score 

SIZE — In  good  flesh;  weight  at  6  months,  200  Ibs. ;  1  year,  400  Ibs. ; 
2  years,  800  Ibs 15 

UTILITY — Sow  prolific ;   motherly  and  lactatious.    Boars  masculine ; 

prepotent    8 

STYLE — Attractive     2 

ACTION — Spirited,   straightforward,   regular,   free  and  easy 2 

FORM — Long,  deep,  broad,  smooth,  symmetrical,  compact,  standing 
squarely  on  legs  of  medium  length 6 

CONSTITUTION — Chest  capacious ;  brisket  advanced  and  low ;  front 
legs  set  well  apart ;  ribs  well  sprung ;  flanks  full  and  well 
let  down  7 

QUALITY — Thick  even  covering  of  firm  flesh  that  is  fine  in  grain ; 
hair  fine ;  bone  fine  but  strong ;  skin  smooth  and  fine ;  free  from 
lumps  and  wrinkles;  general  refinement,  but  not  delicate 4 

CONDITION — Thrifty ;  well  fleshed,  with  large  amount  of  lean  meat 
and  considerable  fat,  but  not  excessively  fat 4 

DISPOSITION — Quiet,   gentle 1 

COLOR — According  to  breed 2 

COAT — Abundant,  fine,  straight,  bright,  smooth,  evenly  distributed, 
lying  close  to  the  body 3 

SNOUT — According   to   breed 1 

EYES — Full  bright,   not  obscured  by  wrinkles 1 

FACE — Dished  according  to  breed,  broad  between  eyes  and  ears, 
smooth  2 

EARS — Fine  texture,  medium  size,  neatly  attached,  carriage  ac- 
cording to  breed ' 1 

JOWLS — Firm,   smooth  medium  size,  not  pendulous 1 

NECK — Medium  length,  deep,  moderately  thick,  joining  head  to 
shoulders  smoothly  2 

SHOULDERS — Long,  full,  especially  at  lower  end,  compact,  smooth, 
not  too  heavy 4 

BACK  AND  LOIN — Long,  broad,  strong,  even  width,  thickly  and 
evenly  fleshed 8 

SIDES — Long,  broad,  thick,  firm,  full,  even  width,  free  from  wrinkles 
and  flabbiness;  ribs  long,  carrying  fullness  well  down 6 

BELLY — Straight,   even,  not  flabby,  proportionate  in  width 2 

RUMP — Long,  wide,  even  width,  thickly  and  evenly  fleshed,  round- 
ing from  loin  to  root  of  tail,  not  too  drooping 3 

HAMS — Broad,  especially  at  upper  end,  long,  full ;  well  fleshed  and 
plump,  not  too  fat 7 

LEGS — Straight,  strong,  tapering,  medium  length,  set  well  apart ; 
bones  smooth ;  joints  clean ;  pasterns  upright ;  feet  medium  size, 
not  sprawling,  squarely  placed  7 

TAIL — Good  in  quality,  with  size  and  length 1 

Total..  ..100 


54  SWINE 

In  the  standard  of  excellence  given  the  hog  is  consid- 
ered by  means  of  twenty-five  different  points.  An  at- 
tempt was  made  to  have  these  various  points  represent 
the  principal  characters  of  the  hog  as  nearly  as  possible, 
or  the  characteristics  that  in  breeding  operations  are 
transmitted  from  parent  to  offspring  more  or  less  inde- 
pendently. First  the  general  characteristics  are  given 
and  these  are  followed  by  the  individual  points  that  go 
to  make  up  form. 

Under  size  it  is  specified  that  a  six  months'  old  hog 
should  weigh  200  pounds,  and  that  it  should  weigh  400 
pounds  at  one  year  and  800  pounds  at  two  years  of  age. 
It  is  assumed  that  the  hog  will  come  to  maturity  at  about 
this  latter  age.  This,  however,  should  not  be  taken  as  a 
hard  and  fast  rule.  Some  hogs  under  the  best  of  condi- 
tions will  weigh  more  than  the  above  specified  amounts, 
and  others  will  weigh  considerably  less.  The  conditions 
under  which  the  hogs  are  kept  and  the  systems  that  are 
used  in  feeding  are  not  yet  as  well  developed  as  they 
should  be,  consequently  there  is  considerable  variation 
in  the  size  of  hogs.  This  difference  also  is  greatly  modi- 
fied by  the  wa}^  hogs  are  selected  for  breeding  purposes 
through  several  generations.  When  a  hog  is  perfect  in 
weight,  or  is  as  large  as  desirable,  it  is  given  a  score  of  15 
points  on  the  basis  of  100,  which  is  the  total  score  for  the 
animal.  This  is  apportioned  among  the  various  points  or 
parts  of  a  hog  in  accordance  with  what  that  individual 
point  should  be  considered  worth  as  part  of  the  entire 
hog  in  order  to  have  as  nearly  a  perfect  hog  as  possible. 
The  size  is  given  first  consideration  because  the  size 
of  a  hog  is  perhaps  the  one  point  that  is  most  striking 
and  first  noted  by  the  average  man. 


JUDGING  SWINE  55 

After  Utility,  Style  is  taken  up  for  consideration 
and  the  hog  should  present  an  attractive  appearance;  he 
should  be  erect  in  carriage,  active  and  alert  in  appear- 
ance, which  is  an  indication  of  strength,  vigor  and  vital1 
ity.  In  action  he  should  be  able  to  get  up  on  his  feet 
and  walk  freely  and  easily  with  feet  moving  straight 
forward  as  he  strides.  That  is,  his  action  should  be  spir- 
ited, straightforward,  regular,  free  and  easy. 

The  form  of  the  hog  is  of  primary  importance.  This 
fifth  point  is  considered  only  in  a  general  way  at  this 
time.  The  latter  part  of  the  score  card,  or  standard  of 
excellence,  gives  the  individual  points  which,  when  prop- 
erly made  in  themselves  and  correctly  put  together,  make 
up  form.  In  general,  however,  the  form  of  a  hog  should 
be  long,  deep,  broad,  smooth,  symmetrical  and  compact, 
standing  squarely  on  legs  of  medium  length. 

The  length  of  a  hog  very  often  is  not  given  due  con- 
sideration. Furthermore,  a  mistake  is  frequently  made 
as  to  the  proper  proportion  of  the  length  of  the  various 
parts.  In  Cuts  13  and  14  length  is  very  nicely  illustrated. 
A  hog  should  have  the  greatest  part  of  its  weight  in  the 
places  that  are  of  most  value.  The  back,  loin,  hams  and 
sides  are  the  most  valuable  parts  of  the  hog;  hence  he 
should  have  the  greater  part  of  his  length  from  the 
shoulders  back.  The  shoulders,  neck  and  head  are  parts 
of  lesser  value,  therefore  the  lighter  these  parts  of  the 
hog  in  proportion  to  the  rear  part,  retaining  at  the  same 
time  strength,  vigor  and  vitality,  the  more  valuable  will 
be  the  animal.  The  length  of  the  hog  then  should  be 
considered  two-fold:  First,  the  total  or  absolute  length 
which  comes  primarily  under  the  head  of  weight  or  size; 
second,  the  proportion  of  length  from  the  rear  of  the 
shoulder  to  the  rear  end  of  the  hog  as  compared  with  the 


56  SWINE 

length  from  the  rear  of  the  shoulder  to  the  front  end  of 
the  head.  The  middle  of  the  hog,  or  the  part  between  the 
shoulders  and  hams,  should  be  long,  and  the  rear  part  of 
the  hog  should  have  considerable  length;  that  is,  the 
rump  or  part  from  the  loin  to  the  root  of  the  tail  should 
be  long.  In  other  words,  the  ham  should  be  broad  (the 
breadth  of  the  ham  is  taken  to  be  the  horizontal  dimen- 
sion of  this  part  of  the  hog  when  it  is  viewed  from  the 
side). 

Aside  from  length  of  body  the  hog  should  have  depth. 
That  is,  the  hams  and  shoulders  should  be  long  and  the 
sides  should  be  broad  or  deep  which,  together  with 
thickness  of  these  desirable  cuts,  furnishes  great  wejght. 
The  shoulders  should  be  long,  but  the  hog  should  also  be 
deep  in  the  chest  so  as  to  make  him  more  symmetrical 
and  to  give  him  great  chest  capacity  which  contains  his 
vital  organs  and  determines  constitution. 

The  hog  should  be  broad,  because  with  breadth  comes  a 
good  pork  loin  as  well  as  a  thick  side.  The  breadth  also 
should  be  well  carried  down  and  not  be  only  in  the  back : 
he  should  be  smooth,  symmetrical  and  compact,  so  as  to 
furnish  the  best  carcass  possible  and  present  the  best  ap- 
pearance, as  well  as  to  have  the  greatest  weight  possible. 
He  should  stand  squarely  on  his  legs  and  be  able  to  carry 
his  weight  at  all  times,  even  when  he  goes  to  market. 
The  legs  should  not  be  too  short  because  short  legs  very 
often  indicate  smallness  of  size.  Neither  should  the  legs 
be  too  long  because  under  such  conditions  the  hog  would 
have  too  much  the  appearance  of  ranginess  and  not  be 
considered  of  the  fat  or  lard  type. 

The  constitution  of  the  hog  should  be  as  good  as  possi- 
ble. That  is,  his  chest  should  be  capacious.  This  is  in- 
dicated by  having  the  brisket  well  advanced  and  low 


JUDGING  SWINE  57 

down  so  that  the  lower  wall  of  the  chest  is  on  a  level 
with  the  under  line  of  the  balance  of  the  body.  The  flanks 
both  rear  and  front  should  be  full  and  well  let  down. 
This  also  is  an  indication  of  good  constitution.  Very 
often  the  mistake  is  made  by  judging  the  constitution  of  a 
hog  with  a  tape  line,  considering  that  the  individual 
which  has  what  is  called  good  heart  girth  has  good  con- 
stitution. In  such  cases  allowance  is  not  made  for  the 
differences  in  size  and  differences  in  condition,  as  well  as 
very  often  differences  in  conformation.  The  hog  may 
have  a  very  thick  heavy  shoulder  and  have  a  great  deal 
of  fat  on  the  outside  of  the  body  which  would  give  him 
considerable  heart  girth,  and  at  the  same  time  he  might 
be  very  weak  in  constitution.  He  might  have  a  small 
chest  capacity  which  would  not  leave  sufficient  room  for 
the  vital  organs  to  be  of  proper  size  and  to  do  the  work 
that  they  should. 

The  quality  of  the  ideal  hog  should  be  what  is  called 
good;  that  is,  the  hair  should  be  fine,  the  bone  fine  and 
strong,  the  skin  smooth  and  fine  with  a  thick  covering  of 
firm  flesh  that  is  fine  in  grain,  which  should  be  free  from 
lumps  and  wrinkles,  and  the  hog  should  have  general 
refinement  but  not  be  delicate.  Quality,  as  previously 
stated,  is  very  often  overdone;  that  is,  intensified  to  such 
an  extent  that  the  hog  becomes  delicate.  Delicacy  is  in- 
dicated by  over-refinement  which  may  sometimes  be  ob- 
served by  the  hog  being  too  small,  having  a  pointed  snout 
and  a  very  fine  tail,  as  well  as  having  general  fineness 
throughout. 

The  hog  for  breeding  purposes  should  be  in  proper 
condition.  He  should  not  be  in -market  condition.  For 
breeding  purposes,  as  the  standard  of  excellence  speci- 
fies, the  hog  should  be  thrifty,  well  fleshed,  but  not  ex- 


58  SWINE 

cessively  fat.  One  of  the  laws  of  breeding  is  that  animals 
will  acquire  characteristics.  That  is,  if  animals  are  bred 
and  developed  for  a  number  of  generations  under  certain 
conditions,  they  will  become  adapted  to  these  conditions 
and  will  produce  results  according  to  the  conditions  un- 
der which  they  have  been  kept.  Consequently,  in  order 
to  get  the  best  possible  results,  the  breeding  hog  should 
be  in  as  high  condition  as  is  possible  without  injuring 
him  in  any  way  for  breeding  purposes.  The  higher  the 
condition  of  the  breeding  stock,  the  greater  will  be  the 
possibility  of  getting  the  best  results  from  the  offspring; 
but  when  the  condition  of  the  animal  is  overdone,  or 
when  an  animal  is  fattened  to  such  a  degree  that  either 
his  prolificacy  or  his  other  breeding  powers  are  impaired, 
it  is  going  one  step  too  far. 

Different  breeders  are  able  to  maintain  their  animals 
in  a  different  degree  of  condition  without  impairing  their 
usefulness.  Breeding  condition,  as  maintained  in  the 
herds  of  some  breeders,  is  what  is  commonly  termed 
very  thin  flesh  for  a  hog.  With  other  breeders,  the  ideal 
breeding  condition  approaches  nearly,  in  the  amount  of 
fat  carried,  the  condition  that  is  ideal  for  a  market  hog. 
With  the  development  of  the  system  of  feeding,  as 
worked  out  at  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station,  it  is 
thought  that  the  breeding  condition  of  a  hog  may  be  con- 
siderably raised  from  what  the  average  is  throughout  the 
country  without  impairing  the  breeding  powers  of  the 
animal,  and  that  the  flesh  and  fat-producing  characteris- 
tics of  the  offspring  may  be  greatly  improved. 

In  disposition  the  breeding  animal  should  be  quiet  and 
gentle  so  that  it  can  be  handled  at  all  times,  both  during 
the  breeding  and  farrowing  seasons. 


JUDGING  SWINE  59 

In  color  the  hog  should  be  according  to  that  specified 
for  the  breed.  The  coat  should  be  abundant;  that  is,  he 
should  have  sufficient  hair  to  be  protected  as  much  as 
possible  from  the  cold  of  winter  and  the  heat  of  summer. 
The  coat  of  a  hog  at  best  does  not  afford  him  a  great  deal 
of  protection,  consequently  it  is  all  the  more  important 
that  he  have  an  abundance  of  hair.  This  should  be  fine, 
which  is  an  indication  of  good  quality.  It  should  be 
straight,  bright,  smooth,  lying  close  to  the  body,  because 
then  the  hog  will  be  thrifty  and  in  good  condition.  It 
should  be  evenly  distributed  in  order  to  present  a  good 
appearance  and  have  the  hog  equally  protected  at  all 
points  of  his  body. 

The  snout  is  another  point  in  which  the  various  breeds 
differ  and  should  be  judged  according  to  the  breed.  The 
eyes  should  be  full,  bright  and  not  obscured  by  wrinkles. 
They  should  be  well  developed  and  open  because  very 
often,  if  obscured  by  folds  of  fat,  the  hog  is  not  able  to 
see.  The  face  as  specified  should  be  dished  according  to 
the  breed,  but  in  general  is  should  be  broad  between  the 
eyes  and  ears  and  also  smooth.  Some  breeds  are  not  very 
broad  between  the  ears  and  some  are  considerably  broader 
than  others,  but  in  general  width  between  the  eyes  is  an 
indication  of  intelligence.  The  ears  should  be  fine  in 
texture,  medium  in  size  and  neatly  attached,  which  is  an 
indication  of  good  quality.  They  should.be  carried  ac- 
cording to  the  breed  as  specified  previously. 

The  jowls  should  be  firm  and  smooth,  medium  in  size 
and  not  pendulous.  In  breeding  animals  considerable 
stress  is  sometimes  laid  upon  the  correlation  between  va- 
rious points.  Many  breeders  have  correlated  the  feeding 
quality  of  swine  with  the  size  of  the  jowls,  thinking  that 
a  hog  with  large  jowls  is  a  good  feeder.  If  the  truth  of 


60  SWINE 

the  matter  will  be  considered,  however,  it  can  easily  be 
seen  that  there  is  no  correlation  between  the  size  of  the 
jowl  and  the  ability  of  the  hog  to  produce  pork.  The 
hog's  digestive  apparatus  is  more  the  determining  factor 
in  this  regard.  Some  breeds,  such  as  the  Tamworth  and 
the  Hampshire,  have  very  light  jowls,  and  some  indi- 
viduals in  these  breeds  have  practically  no  jowls  at  all, 
but  still  they  are  just  as  good  feeders  as  hogs  of  other 
breeds  with  very  heavy  jowls.  The  jowls  should  be  firm 
so  as  to  have  sufficient  lean  meat  of  good  quality.  They 
should  be  medium  in  size  because  this  is  one  of  the  cheap- 
est cuts  of  the  carcass ;  hence  it  is  more  desirable  to  have 
the  greater  weight  in  the  better  cuts.  Still  the  jowls 
should  be  sufficiently  large  to  give  the  hog  a  symmetrical 
and  well-balanced  appearance.  They  should  not  be 
pendulous  because  this  would  render  the  hog  more  or  less 
nnsymmetrical  and  be  an  indication  of  poor  quality. 

The  neck  is  the  junction  between  the  head  and 
shoulders  and  should  have  sufficient  length,  depth  arrd 
thickness  to  be  useful,  and  attractive  in  appearance.  It 
should  not  be  unduly  thick  because  this  again  is  one  of 
the  cheaper  cuts  in  the  carcass.  It  should  join  the  head 
and  shoulders  smoothly  to  give  the  hog  the  best  possible 
appearance. 

The  shoulder  should  be  long  and  full,  especially  at  the 
lower  end,  because  this  end  of  the  shoulder  is  one  of  the 
points  that  is  especially  weak  in  a  great  many  individuals 
of  different  breeds.  While  the  length  of  shoulder  is  not 
necessarily  correlated  with  the  depth  of  the  chest  or  con- 
stitution, still  it  will  give  the  hog  a  more  symmetrical  ap- 
pearance and  increase  his  weight  if  the  shoulder  is  well 
developed  and  long  enough  so  that  the  lower  end  of  it  is 
even  with  the  under  line  of  the  body.  It  should  be  com- 


JUDGING  SWINE  61 

pact  and  smooth  so  as  to  give  the  hog  a  symmetrical  ap- 
pearance with  respect  to  a  smooth,  well-balanced  carcass. 
It  should  not  be  too  heavy  because  the  shoulder  is  a 
comparatively  cheap  cut. 

The  hog  should  have  a  long  back  and  loin  as  well  as  a 
long  body,  because  the  back  and  loin  is  one  of  the  most 
valuable  cuts.  It  is  the  place  where  the  pork  chop  and 
the  pork  roast  are  obtained.  This  also  should  be  broad 
because  with  the  breadth  of  the  back  the  size  of  the  pork 
chop  is  materially  increased.  The  breadth  should  still 
be  maintained  even  if  the  hog  is  not  in  high  condition. 
The  back  and  loin  perhaps  may  be  more  improved  in 
breadth  by  high  condition  than  any  other  part  of  the 
hog;  consequently  it  is  very  desirable  that  the  hog  have 
good  breadth  even  in  moderate  flesh,  in  order  to  have  as 
much  lean  meat  in  the  back  and  loin  as  possible.  The 
back  should  be  strong;  that  is,  it  should  either  be  straight 
or,  better  still,  arched,  so  that  the  hog  will  present  an  at- 
tractive appearance  at  all  times  and  will  not  "go  down  in 
the  back"  or  allow  the  back  to  sag  at  any  time,  especially 
during  periods  of  pregnancy.  The  back  should  be  even 
in  width ;  that  is,  it  should  be  as  broad  in  the  rear  as  it  is 
in  the  front  for  obvious  reasons.  With  many  hogs  there 
is  a  tendency  for  the  back  to  taper  towards  the  rear,  and 
sometimes  they  are  especially  narrow  at  the  loin.  The 
hog  as  a  whole  should  be  even  in  width.  It  should  be 
evenly  and  firmly  fleshed  which  gives  a  smooth,  well-pro- 
portioned carcass. 

The  side  of  the  hog  should  be  long,  deep  and  thick  so 
ac  to  have  as  much  weight  as  possible  in  this  cut,  which 
is  one  of  the  most  valuable  in  the  entire  hog.  To  con- 
tain sufficient  lean  meat  and  to  be  of  good  quality  it 
should  be  firm  and  free  from  wrinkles  and  flabbiness.  It 


62  SWINE 

should  be  even  in  width,  the  ribs  should  be  long  and  carry 
the  fullness  well  down  to  give  the  hog  a  symmetrical  well- 
balanced  appearance  and  as  much  weight  as  possible. 

The  belly  should  contain  as  much  lean  meat  as  can  be 
obtained  and  should  be  straight  and  even,  but  not  flabby 
or  contain  too  much  fat.  In  width  it  should  be  properly 
proportioned  to  the  width  of  the  hog  in  general.  The 
belly  of  course  never  is  quite  as  broad  as  the  remainder 
of  the  body,  but  many  times  the  belly  is  decidedly  nar- 
row. This  is  an  objection  in  a  brood  sow  for  various  rea- 
sons, among  which  is  that  a  narrow  belly  would  not  give 
sufficient  udder  for  the  proper  nourishment  of  the  lit- 
ter. 

The  rump,  which  is  the  part  from  the  loin  to  the  tail, 
should  be  long.  With  length  in  the  rump  there  usually 
also  is  associated  width  of  ham,  both  of  which  are  desira- 
ble and  valuable  cuts.  The  rump  should  be  wide,  which 
increases  the  weight  of  this  part  as  well  as  the  thickness 
of  the  ham.  It  should  be  even  in  width  and  thickly  and 
evenly  fleshed  so  as  to  give  the  hog  the  best  possible  ap- 
pearance and  the  carcass  weight.  It  should  be  rounded 
from  the  loin  to  the  root  of  the  tail  and  the  tail  should 
not  be  set  too  low,  all  of  which  adds  to  the  beauty  and 
usefulness  of  the  animal. 

The  hams  should  be  broad  throughout,  especially  at 
the  upper  end,  deep,  full,  well  fleshed ;  plump  but  not  too 
fat.  A  ham  of  this  nature  is  one  that  gives  the  hog 
strength  of  back  and  is  one  the  market  demands.  It 
should  be  oval  shaped  when  cut  out  and  have  sufficient 
lean  meat  to  give  it  thickness.  The  ham  that  contains  too 
much  fat  is  not  desirable.  Sometimes  the  ham  of  a  hog 
has  an  undue  amount  of  fat  immediately  above  the  hock 
as  well  as  over  the  entire  ham.  This  is  an  undesirable 


JUDGING   SWINE  63 

characteristic  because  when  a  ham  has  too  much  fat,  it 
cannot  be  sold  entire  and  must  be  skinned.  In  such  a 
case  the  ham  will  sell  at  a  lower  price. 

The  legs  should  be  as  indicated  in  the  standard  of  ex- 
cellence (page  53),  which  gives  the  hog  good  action  and 
strength  to  carry  his  weight,  and  is  also  an  indication  of 
good  quality.  The  tail  should  be  of  good  quality  and 
have  considerable  size  and  length,  because  a  tail  that  is 
too  small  and  fine  may  be  an  indication  of  over-refine- 
ment and  delicacy. 

Having  considered  the  fat  or  lard  hog  for  breeding  pur- 
poses, as  above  outlined,  it  is  well  now  to  consider  the 
fat  or  lard  hog  that  is  intended  for  market  purposes. 

Fat  or  Lard  Hogs  for  Market. 

STANDARD  OP  EXCELLENCE.  Perfect 

^  Score 

FORM— Long,  deep,  broad,  smooth,  symmetrical,  compact,  standing 

squarely  on  legs 7 

CONDITION — Thrifty,  well  fleshed  with  lean  meat  and  fat  but  firm.    12 
QUALITY — Thick  even  covering  of  firm  flesh  that  is  fine  in  grain ; 

hair  fine ;   bone  fine,  but  strong ;    skin   smooth  and  fine,   free 

from  lumps  and  wrinkles;  general  refinement,  but  not  delicate.    10 

STYLE — Attractive    1 

ACTION — Spirited,  straightforward,  regular,  free  and  easy 2 

CONSTITUTION — Chest  capacious ;  brisket  advanced  and  low ;  front 

legs   well   set  apart ;    ribs  well    sprung ;    flanks   full  and   well 

let   down    5 

COAT — Abundant,  fine,  straight,  bright,  smooth,  evenly  distributed, 

lying  close  to   the  body 0.5 

SNOUT — Medium  length,  not  coarse 0.5 

EYES — Full,  bright ;  not  obscured  by  wrinkles 0.5 

FACE — Broad  between  eyes  and  ears,  smooth 0.5 

EARS — Fine   texture,   medium   size,   neatly  attached 0.5 

JOWLS — Smooth,   firm,   medium   size,   not  pendulous 1 

NECK — Medium   length,    deep,    moderately   thick;    joining   head   to 

shoulders    smoothly     2 

SHOULDERS — Long,  full,  especially  at  lower  end,  compact,  smooth, 

not  too  heavy 7 

BACK   AND   LOIN — Long,    broad,    strong,    even   width,    thickly   and 

evenly   fleshed    15 

SIDES — Long,  broad   thick,  firm,  full,  even  width,  free  from  wrinkles 

and  flabbiness     ribs  long,   carrying  fullness  well  down 12 


64  SWINE 

Perfect 
score 

BELLY — Straight,   even,   not  flabby ;   proportionate  in  width 2 

RUMP — Long,  wide,  even  width,  thickly  and  evenly  fleshed,  round- 
ing from  loin  to  root  of  tail,  not  too  drooping 5 

HAMS — Broad,  especially  at  upper  end,  long,  full,  well  fleshed  and 
plump ;  not  too  fat  12 

LEGS — Straight,  strong,  tapering,  medium  length,  set  well  apart ; 
bones  smooth ;  joints  clean ;  pasterns  upright ;  feet  medium 
size,  not  sprawling,  squarely  placed 4 

TAIL — Good  in  quality,  with  size  and  length 0.5 

Total 100 

With  the  exception  of  a  few  points  this  standard  of  ex- 
cellence is  essentially  the  same  as  the  preceding.  It  will 
be  noticed  that  not  quite  as  many  points  are  given,  and 
therefore  the  values  given  to  the  various  points  are  some- 
what different.  Besides  this,  the  value  given  to  some  of 
the  points  is  considerably  different.  The  principal  points 
of  difference  are  as  follows :  The  market  hog  has  con- 
siderably more  value  attached  to  condition;  that  is,  the 
prime  hog  for  market  is  much  higher  in  condition  (more 
fat  meat  on  the  body)  than  the  breeding  hog.  In  quality 
also  the  market  hog  is  given  greater  value.  This  is  true 
because  when  the  hog  is  in  prime  condition  for  market 
quality  shows  up  to  better  advantage  and  is  also  con- 
siderable of  an  improvement  over  what  is  seen  in  many 
breeding  animals.  The  market  calls  for  as  much  quality 
as  possible,  while  the  breeder  can  sometimes  sacrifice 
some  of  this  to  good  advantage  provided  he  can  gain  in 
other  characteristics,  such  as  size,  prolificacy  and 
growthiness. 

In  constitution  greater  value  is  given  to  the  breeding 
hog  than  to  the  market  hog.  The  packer  does  not  care 
how  little  constitution  the  hog  has  provided  it  can  walk 
across  the  scales  and  into  the  slaughter  pens  comfortably, 
but  the  breeder  wants  as  much  constitution  as  possible 
for  various  reasons.  Coat,  snout,  eyes,  face  and  ears  are 


JUDGING  SWINE  65 

minor  points  from  the  market  standpoint  and  are  given 
but  small  value. 

In  back  and  loin  the  market  hog  is  given  much  greater 
value  than  the  breeding  hog.  This  point  is  as  much,  or 
perhaps  more,  responsible  for  the  price  at  which  hogs 
sell  on  the  market  than  any  other.  It  is  the  one  point  that 
is  most  apparent,  and  it  also  is  the  one  point  that  can  be 
most  improved  by  condition.  Hence  the  market  hog  has 
much  more  emphasis  placed  on  back  and  loin,  and  the 
breeding  hog  relatively  less.  However,  the  breeding  hog 
should  have  a  good  back  and  loin  in  every  respect, 
though  it  does  not  have  so  much  width  because  it  is  not 
so  fat. 

For  the  sides  the  market  hog  is  again  given  considerably 
more  value.  This  also  is  right  on  account  of  the  higher 
condition  of  the  market  hog.  He  also  has  a  little  more 
value  attached  to  the  hams  because  they  are  better  rilled 
out  on  account  of  the  higher  condition.  In  legs  the  breed- 
ing hog  has  nearly  double  the  value  the  market  hog  has. 
If  the  market  hog  has  sufficient  strength  in  legs  to  walk 
across  the  scales,  it  is  enough  for  his  purpose,  but  the 
breeding  hog  needs  a  great  deal  more.  He  must  be  able 
to  do  duty  as  a  breeder  as  well  as  to  roam  over  pastures 
and  fields  to  gather  part  of  his  feed  and  to  get  exercise. 

BACON  TYPE. 

The  two  score  cards  which  follow  were  made  for  bacon 
hogs,  one  for  breeding  and  the  other  for  market  purposes. 
With  the  explanations  given  above  these  need  no  further 
discussion  except  to  state  that  the  bacon  hog  is  one  that 
is  developed  primarily  for  its  sides  and  that  the  weight  of 
the  market  bacon  hog  should  range  in  general  between 
160  and  220  pounds  live  weight.  The  breeding  animal  of 


66  SWINE 

course  should  be  as  large  as  possible  because,  as  pre- 
viously stated,  the  larger  the  parent  stock,  the  earlier  will 
be  the  time  at  which  the  offspring  will  reach  the  desired 
weight  and  the  greater  will  be  the  profit  from  such 
breeding  operations. 

Bacon  Hogs  for  Breeding. 

STANDARD  OP  EXCELLENCE. 

Perfect 
Score 
SIZE — In   good   flesh;    weight   at    6    months,    200    Ibs. ;    1   year,    400 

Ibs. ;    2  years,   800   Ibs 12 

FORM — Long,    deep,    medium   width,    smooth,    standing    squarely    on 

legs     8 

CONSTITUTION — Chest   capacious,   brisket  advanced   and   low,    flanks 

full  and  well   let   down 8 

QUALITY — Even  covering  of  firm  flesh  that  is  fine  in  grain  and  with- 
out flabbiness  or  wrinkles  ;  hair  fine  ;  skin  smooth  and  fine  ;  bone 

fine  but  strong ;  general  refinement,  but  not  delicate 5 

CONDITION — Thrifty ;    deep,   uniform   covering   of  firm   flesh 5 

STYLE — Attractive     1 

ACTION — Spirited,  straightforward,  regular,  free  and  easy 2 

DISPOSITION — Quiet,    gentle    2 

COLOR — According    to    breed 1 

COAT — Abundant,    long,    straight,    silky 2 

SNOUT — According   to   breed 1 

EYES — Full,    bright,    smooth 1 

FACE — Slim,  broad  between  eyes 2 

EARS — Trim,   according  to   breed 1 

JOWLS — Light,    neat,    firm 2 

NECK — Medium  length,   light,   muscular,   but  not  arched 3 

SHOULDERS — Smooth,    compact,    long,    not    wide,    same    fullness    as 

back  and  hindquarters 5 

BACK — Strong,  long,  smooth,  medium  and  uniform  in  width 8 

SIDES — Long,  broad  and  uniform  in  width ;  smooth  firm ;  even  with 

shoulder  and  ham;  uniform  spring  of  rib;  not  too  fat 12 

BELLY — Straight,  firm,  thick,  free  from  flabbiness 4 

RUMP — Long,    even,    slightly   rounded   toward   tail,    same   width   as 

back     2 

HAMS — Firm ;  broad  at  upper  end,  tapering,  not  too  thick  and  fleshed 

well  down  toward  hocks 6 

LEGS — Straight,   strong,   tapering,  bones  smooth ;   joints  clean ;   pas- 
terns upright;  feet  medium  size,  not  sprawling,  squarely  placed.  6 
TAIL — Rather  large  and  long,  smooth 1 

Total 100 


JUDGING  SWINE  67 

Bacon  Hogs  for  Market. 

STANDARD  OF  EXCELLENCE. 

Perfect 
Seore 

WEIGHT — Score  according  to   size 7 

FORM — Long,    deep,    medium    width,    smooth,    standing   'squarely    on 

legs     8 

QUALITY — Even  covering  of  firm  flesh  that  is  fine  in  grain  and  with- 
out  flabbiness   or  wrinkles ;    hair   fine ;    skin   smooth   and   fine ; 

bone  fine  but  strong ;   general  refinement,  but  not  delicate ....  3 
CONDITION — Thrifty;    deep,   uniform   covering  of  firm  flesh;   fat   on 

outside   about    1  y2    inches   thick    10 

STYLE — Attractive 1 

ACTION — Spirited,   straightforward,  regular,  free  and  easy 2 

CONSTITUTION — Chest   capacious,   brisket   advanced   and   low,    flanks 

full   and   well   let   down 4 

COAT — Abundant,    long,    straight,    silky 1 

SNOUT — According   to   breed 1 

EYES — Bright,    open,    smooth 1 

FACE— Slim,  broad  between  eyes 1 

EARS — Trim,    medium   size 1 

JOWLS — Light,    neat,    firm 2 

NECK — Medium  length,   light,   muscular,  but  not  arched 2 

SHOULDERS — Smooth,    compact,    long,    not    wide,    same    fullness    as 

back    and    hindquarters 6 

BACK — Strong,  long,  smooth,  medium  and  uniform  in  width 9 

SIDES — Long,  broad  and  uniform  in  width ;  smooth,  firm ;  even  with 

ham  and  shoulder ;   uniform  spring  of  rib ;  not  too  fat 14 

BELLY — Straight,   firm,   thick,   free  from  flabbiness 6 

RUMP — Long,   even,    slightly   rounded   towards  tail,    same  width   as 

back   3 

HAMS — Firm ;    broad    at    upper    end,    tapering,    not    too    thick    and 

fleshed  well   down   toward   hocks. 8 

LEGS — Straight,   strong,   tapering;   bones  smooth,   joints  clean,  pas- 
terns upright ;  feet  medium  size,  not  sprawling,  squarely  placed  4 
TAIL — Rather  large  and  long 1 

Total..  ..100 


CHAPTER  V. 
ESTABLISHING  A  BREEDING  HERD. 

In  selecting  foundation  stock  for  a  breeding  herd  va- 
rious considerations  are  necessary,  and  the  breeder  has 
several  alternatives.  One  of  the  first  questions  that  pre- 
sents itself  is  as  to  whether  market  hogs  are  to  be  pro- 
duced exclusively,  whether  market  hogs  and  breeding 
hogs  are  to  be  produced  together,  or  whether  the  business 
is  intended  primarily  for  the  production  of  pure-bred 
stock  for  breeding  purposes.  Another  question  that  would 
naturally  arise  is  the  amount  of  capital  available  for  the 
establishment  of  such  a  business.  It  is  highly  important 
that  this  matter  be  given  the  most  serious  consideration. 
Much  depends  on  it. 

The  next  question  of  primary  importance  should  be  the 
selection  of  the  individuals.  In  order  to  do  this  properly 
a  man  must  be  able  to  judge  swine,  and  to  be  able  to  do 
this  to  the  best  possible  advantage  he  must  be  a  good 
judge  of  pigs.  He  must  be  able  to  recognize  the  desirable 
and  undesirable  characteristics  of  the  pig  before  it  has  ad- 
vanced very  much  in  age  and  size.  It  is  true  that  it  is 
much  more  difficult  to  recognize  the  good  and  bad  points 
in  a  small  pig  than  it  is  in  the  hog  that  has  reached  con- 
siderable size,  but  the  man  who  has  developed  such 
ability  has  an  advantage  over  the  man  who  has  not  this 
ability  that  can  hardly  be  estimated.  The  man,  therefore,. 
who  is  able  to  judge  pigs  correctly  under  three  months 

(68) 


ESTABLISHING  A  BREEDING   HKRD  69 

of  age  has  an  asset  which  will  afford  him  unlimited  op- 
portunity as  a  breeder. 

THE  GRADE  HERD. 

A  good  pure  bred  animal  would  be  the  best,  of  course, 
for  all  purposes,  for  the  production  of  purely  market  hogs 
as  well  as  for  the  production  of  pure  bred  animals  for 
breeding  purposes.  But  the  man  with  limited  means,  and 
perhaps  also  with  limited  knowledge  as  to  the  value  of 
different  animals,  will  be  able  to  succeed  and  succeed  well 
by  starting  a  herd  with  grade  stock.  Grade  sows  may  be 
bought  in  various  places ;  by  private  sale  direct  from  the 
breeder,  in  local  markets,  and  sometimes  at  auction. 
Wherever  they  are  bought,  they  should  be  bought  pri- 
marily for  the  use  to  which  they  are  to  be  put,  namely, 
they  should  not  be  in  market  condition  when  they  are  to 
be  put  in  the  breeding  herd.  If  such  sows  are  properly 
selected  and  bought  at  reasonable  prices,  and  it  very 
often  happens  that  they  can  be  bought  at  a  figure  but 
little  above  the  market  price  at  the  time,  they  may  be  put 
in  the  herd  and  mated  with  a  pure  bred  sire  to  very  good 
advantage.  Such  breeding,  if  properly  done,  will  afford 
the  man  with  limited  means  an  opportunity  to  get  a  good 
start  and  at  the  same  time  will  not  be  very  expensive. 
By  mating  one  or  two  pure  bred  sows  with  his  pure  bred 
sire,  and  continuing  with  his  grade  herd,  he  can  gradually 
work  into  a  pure  bred  herd.  A  good  individual,  whether 
it  be  a  grade  or  pure  bred,  is  always  better  than  a  poor 
individual  of  similar  breeding,  and  it  is  often  true  that  a 
good  grade  is  better  than  a  poor  individual  of  a  pure  bred 
strain.  The  man,  then,  who  has  a  well  selected  grade 
herd  and  is  producing  hogs  for  the  pork  market  will  suc- 
ceed a  great  deal  better  than  the  man  who  is  producing 


70  SWINE 

pork  hogs  from  a  pure  bred  herd  that  have  not  been  as 
well  selected. 

THE  PURE  BRED  HERD. 

The  Public  Sale. — There  are  several  ways  by  which 
animals  may  be  purchased  for  breeding  purposes.  The 
public  sale  very  often  affords  an  excellent  opportunity. 
It  is  true  that  the  best  individuals  at  a  public  sale  often 
sell  for  such  substantial  prices  that  the  average  breeder 
cannot  afford  to  buy  them.  But  animals  that  sell  for  the 
highest  prices  at  public  sales  are  not  always  the  best ;  in- 
deed, frequently  the  best  animals  from  the  standpoint  of 
individuality  except  the  best  individuals  from  the  best 
herds,  sell  for  the  lowest  prices,  or  at  least  very  much 
cheaper  than  the  price  at  which  they  could  be  bought  at 
private  sale.  At  a  public  sale  animals  very  often  sell  on 
their  pedigrees,  whether  the  individual  is  good  or  bad.  It 
is  not  necessarily  true,  and  in  fact  is  never  true,  that  all 
animals  with  good  breeding  are  good  individuals.  The 
pedigreed  scrub  (a  pure  bred  inferior  individual)  is  the 
worst  kind  of  scrub  because,  if  such  an  animal  had  a  long 
line  of  good  breeding  back  of  him,  he  has  many  of  the  bad 
characteristics  of  previous  generations  combined  and 
firmly  fixed  within  him  and  is  almost  sure  to  transmit 
such  characteristics.  The  offspring  from  such  pedigreed 
scrubs  will  be  likely  to  be  poor  individuals,  even  though 
the  animals  have  the  best  kind  of  breeding  and  sell  at 
high  prices.  Thus  the  public  sale  is  more  or  less  of  an 
uncertainty  and  may  or  may  not  afford  the  best  oppor- 
tunity for  securing  herd  specimens. 

Private  Sale. — Another  means  of  getting  specimens  for 
a  breeding  herd  is  by  private  sale.  The  purchaser  may 
visit  the  breeder  and  secure  individuals  he  desires,  if  he 


ESTABLISHING  A  BREEDING   HERD  71 

can  afford  to  pay  the  price  asked.  In  the  hands  of  the 
best  breeders,  however,  the  best  individuals  may  be  either 
not  for  sale  or  may  be  comparatively  high-priced.  The 
advantages  and  disadvantages  of  this  practice  are  as  fol- 
lows :  If  the  purchaser  has  developed  exceptional  ability 
as  a  judge  and  is  able  to  recognize  the  good  and  bad 
points  in  a  pig  under  three  months  of  age,  he  has  a  good 
opportunity.  He  may  go  to  the  herd  of  a  prominent 
breeder,  or  to  the  herds  of  breeders  less  prominent,  and 
if  they  have  not  the  ability  to  judge  to  the  same  extent 
that  he  has,  he  may  be  able  to  select  and  purchase  the 
best  individuals  in  the  herd.  The  breeder  very  often  re- 
fuses to  part  with  the  best  individuals  from  his  viewpoint 
because  he  needs  them  for  the  maintenance  and  improve- 
ment of  his  own  herd.  The  man  buying  specimens  for 
the  establishment  of  a  herd  still  has  an  opportunity  to  suc- 
ceed even  if  he  starts  with  individuals  of  less  than  first 
grade.  He  can  gradually  improve  his  herd  year  after 
year,  but  the  higher  up  the  scale  he  can  start,  the  greater 
should  be  his  success. 

Bred  Sows. — Another  means  of  getting  herd  speci- 
mens is  by  buying  bred  brood  sows  either  at  private  or 
public  sale.  Such  sows  if  properly  selected  may  have 
outstanding  individuals  in  their  litters.  They  may  be 
bred  to  noted  herd  boars  which  are  not  for  sale,  and  if 
they  are  good  individuals  will  produce  good  pigs  to  the 
extent  to  which  good  individuals  ordinarily  appear  from 
such  breeding.  Such  sows  may  also  be  bred  to  young 
boars  that  have  not  as  yet  demonstrated  their  ability  as 
producers,  but  still  a  good  judge  will  be  able  to  recognize 
in  them  possibilities  to  produce  offspring  of  great  merit. 
These  very  often  may  be  bought  at  a  reasonable  price 


72  SWINE 

and  for  much  less  money  than  those  that  are  bred  to  herd 
boars  that  have  won  a  great  reputation. 

The  Herd  Boar. — In  buying  a  herd  boar  the  breeder  has 
the  same  opportunity  of  selection  while  the  pigs  are 
young  that  he  has  in  buying  the  sows.  In  buying  old  and 
tried  sires  the  probability  is  that  if  he  wants  to  buy  the 
best,  he  has  to  spend  an  enormous  sum  of  money  to  get 
one.  Sires  of  other  than  strictly  first  grade  very  often 
can  be  bought  at  a  very  reasonable  figure.  On  account 
of  the  small  size  of  the  herd  and  to  avoid  inbreeding  they 
must  be  disposed  of.  Another  means  of  getting  outstand- 
ing herd  specimens  is,  after  having  sows  in  the  herd,  to 
have  one  of  them  bred  to  some  noted  sire.  This  may  be 
rather  expensive,  but  if  such  animals  are  properly  mated, 
good  individuals  are  likely  to  be  obtained. 

Additional  Herd  Specimens. — After  having  obtained 
the  foundation  stock  for  a  herd,  additional  herd  specimens 
may  be  obtained  by  selecting  the  best  offspring.  This  of 
course  will  not  add  new  blood  to  the  herd,  and  the  breeder 
still  will  be  obliged  occasionally  to  buy  new  specimens. 
But  after  having  obtained  a  good  start  with  a  herd  of 
first  rank,  it  is  best  to  depend  in  the  main  upon  one's  own 
herd  for  the  selection  of  outstanding  herd  specimens. 
This  is  especially  true  because  of  the  disinclination  of  the 
best  breeders  to  sell  their  best  individuals. 

Requirement  for  Success. — As  will  be  readily  recog- 
nized, the  principal  requirement  for  success  in  the^process 
of  establishing  a  high-class  herd  and  improving  it  there- 
after is  one's  ability  to  select  the  proper  animals.  After 
having  established  a  herd,  the  great  work  of  feeding  the 
hogs  presents  itself,  and  before  pure  bred  animals  can  be 
sold  successfully  for  breeding  purposes,  good  individuals 
must  be  produced  and  a  reputation  must  be  established. 


ESTABLISHING  A  BREEDING    HERD  73 

To  get  the  individuals  proper  mating,  feeding  and  care 
are  absolutely  necessary.  To  gain  a  reputation  advertis- 
ing is  resorted  to  and  there  is  said  to  be  no  better  adver- 
tising-than  to  be  able  to  win  at  the  big  shows. 

If  sufficient  capital  is  available,  and  one  has  not  the 
necessary  judging  ability,  he  can  buy  noted  outstanding 
herd  specimens  both  in  sires  and  dams,  and  thus  be  able 
to  sell  pure  bred  stock.  This,  however,  is  not  the  test  of 
the  true  breeder,  but  is  more  in  the  nature  of  a  dealer's 
method  of  doing  business.  A  true  breeder  is  one  who 
can  judge  accurately  as  to  future  requirements  and  can 
mold  the  type  and  improve  the  breed  in  accordance  with 
such  ideals. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
ORIGIN  OF  THE  BREEDS. 

In  order  to  be  able  to  breed  swine  intelligently,  a  man 
must  not  only  know  the  characteristics,  but  he  must  be 
familiar  with  the  origin  of  the  breeds  as  well  as  with  the 
way  they  were  developed.  With  this  knowledge  of  the 
breeds  during  their  past  history  he  will  be  better  able  to 
judge  what  characteristics  are  likely  to  be  transmitted 
or  what  may  be  expected  in  the  future  development  of  the 
breed.  The  principal  breeds  of  swine  today  originated 
in  two  places — Great  Britain  and  the  United  States.  The 
conditions  in  the  two  countries  in  which  the  breeds  orig- 
inated are  widely  different  and  must  be  considered  sepa- 
rately. 

ENGLISH  BREEDS. 

Swine  in  general,  as  found  by  modern  civilization, 
existed  in  two  types :  First,  the  type  of  wild  boar  as 
found  in  central  and  northern  Europe  and  called  Sus 
Scrofa ;  second,  the  type  found  in  southern  Europe  which 
is  called  Sus  Indica.  The  latter  as  found  in  the  early  part 
of  the  present  state  of  civilization,  was  a  highly  improved 
hog;  the  former  existed  and  still  exists  to  some  extent  in 
a  wild  state.  These  two  types  are  characteristic  of  hogs 
in  general,  those  of  the  north  being  rather  large,  coarse, 
rangy  and  active,  while  those  of  the  south  are  small,  fat, 
plump,  early-maturing  and  inactive. 

The  Wild  Boar. — The  wild  boar  is  characterized  as  be- 
ing strong,  vigorous  and  active,  requiring  four  or  five 

(74) 


ORIGIN  OF   THE   BREEDS  75 

years  to  reach  maturity  and  then  to  live  to  be  twenty  or 
thirty  years  old.  His  head  is  long,  his  tusks  are  large, 
and  his  forequarters  heavy.  In  constitution  he  is  most 
excellent,  having  great  chest  capacity,  being  both  deep 
and  broad  in  this  part  of  his  body.  In  quality,  however, 
he  is  coarse.  The  size  and  condition  are  variable,  de- 
pending very  largely  upon  location,  feed,  and  the  season. 
In  color  he  is  a  rusty  gray  when  young  which  turns  to  a 
dark  brown  as  he  grows  older.  In  aged  animals  the  ends 
of  the  hair  become  gray,  producing  a  hazy  gray  color. 
They  have  an  abundance  of  hair  with  a  long  snout  and 
small  pointed  ears  that  stand  erect.  The  jowls  are  very 
light,  the  neck  is  heavy,  the  shoulders  heavy  and  well  de- 
veloped, the  back  and  loin  short,  the  hams  very  light, 
and  the  legs  are  long.  The  sows  are  said  to  breed  only 
once  per  year  and  to  produce  from  five  to  six  pigs  per 
litter.  They  suckle  these  three  or  four  months,  and  then 
give  them  protection  for  two  or  three  years. 

Sus  Indica. — The  Sus  Indica  type  is  best  illustrated  by 
the  domestic  breeds  of  southern  Europe  known  as  Nea- 
politan, Siamese  and  Chinese.  These  are  more  or  less 
similar  in  characteristics ;  they  are  small,  early-maturing, 
fat  and  plump,  as  above  designated.  They  are  the  ideal 
of  the  fat  or  larcj  type  except  that  they  are  smaller  than 
this  type  as  considered  from  the  present  market  require- 
ments. They  are  very  fine  in  quality,  are  delicate  in  con- 
stitution, and  usually  have  the  fattening  tendency  de- 
veloped to  a  marked  degree.  On  this  account  also  they 
are  quiet  and  gentle  in  disposition.  They  have  a  very 
light  coat  of  hair,  jowls  that  are  full,  with  a  short,  thick, 
heavy  neck.  The  shoulders  and  hams  are  well  developed, 
producing  a  short,  thick,  blocky  hog  which  stands  on 
short  legs  of  fine  quality. 


76  SWINE 

In  color  these  three  breeds  are  somewhat  different. 
The  Neapolitan  is  black,  slate  or  ash  color,  and  sometimes 
a  dirty  white  and  more  or  less  spotted.  The  Siamese  is 
of  a  dark  slate  or  rich  plum  color.  The  Chinese  may  be 
either  white  or  black,  or  a  mixture  of  both,  with  white 
predominating.  These  three  breeds,  and  possibly  others, 
which  illustrate  the  Sus  Indica  type,  apparently  have 
been  bred  for  many  centuries  in  southern  Europe. 

Production  of  Breeds. — In  comparing  this  hog  (Sus 
Indica  type)  with  the  northern  type  of  animal,  the  Sus 
Scrofa,  the  question  naturally  arises  what  was  the  first 
origin  of  these  two  types  of  hogs.  The  assumption  is 
that  these  two  types  naturally  trace  back  to  the  same  an- 
cestry. The  difference  in  them,  then,  is  the  result  of  en- 
vironment as  produced  in  different  localities.  The  hogs 
of  the  south  have  an  abundance  of  food  which,  together 
with  the  environment  under  which  they  live,  would  have 
a  tendency  to  develop  the  qualities  of  early  maturity  and 
fat-producing  tendency  and  also  to  reduce  the  size.  Those 
of  the  north  where  food  is  more  scarce  would  develop  to 
the  other  extreme. 

The  northern  civilization  of  Europe  in  its  present  form 
is  much  more  recent  than  that  of  the  south.  The  north- 
ern hog,  therefore,  is  comparatively  a  modern  hog.  Con- 
sidering that  he  is  the  natural  outgrowth  of  the  wild  boar 
of  the  Sus  Scrofa  type  which  was  found  in  northern 
Europe,  it  can  readily  be  seen  that  this  would  produce  a 
.hog  materially  different  from  the  highly  improved  types 
found  in  the  south. 

During  the  early  history  of  Great  Britain  conditions 
were  especially  adapted  to  the  production  of  different 
breeds.  Transportation  facilities  were  inadequate,  tele- 
phone and  telegraph  communication  were  unknown,  and 


ORIGIN   OF   THE  BREEDS  77 

the  people  were  more  or  less  isolated  by  communities, 
especially  in  the  sections  of  the  country  where  they  were, 
by  topographical  nature,  cut  off  from  the  other  parts  of 
the  country.  Conditions  in  different  localities  of  an 
island  country  like  Great  Britain  are  decidedly  different 
and  the  likes  and  dislikes  of  the  people  in  different  lo- 
calities probably  were  different,  some  perhaps  preferring 
white  hogs,  some  black  hogs,  some  even  red  hogs,  others 
hogs  of  the  bacon  type  and  still  others  hogs  of  the  fat  or 
lard  type.  Thus  the  isolated  communities  in  developing 
their  live  stock  produced  various  types  of  swine  which  re- 
sulted in  the  foundation  stock  for  the  different  breeds  as 
found  in  recent  years. 

AMERICAN  BREEDS. 

The  breeds  that  originated  in  the  United  States  are 
called  the  American  breeds  and  were  developed  under 
entirely  different  conditions  from  those  in  Europe.  In 
this  country  breeds  were,  comparatively  recently,  im- 
ported from  all  parts  of  the  world  and  in  some  cases  very 
many  crosses  of  these  imported  breeds  were  used  to  es- 
tablish a  new  breed.  In  other  cases  comparatively  few 
were  used.  These  were  developed  under  different  condi- 
tions pf  feed,  care  and  environment,  and  in  some  cases 
under  conditions  that  were  ideally  adapted  to  the  produc- 
tion of  new  and  distinct  breeds.  Thus  there  have  been 
brought  forth  in.  Great  Britain  and  in  the  United  States 
a  considerable  number  of  breeds  of  swine  which  are  sepa- 
rate and  distinct  one  from  another  and  most  of  which  are 
very  good. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  BREEDS. 

The  characteristics  of  a  breed  are  determined  by  the 
foundation  stock  and  by  the  methods  adopted  in  its  de- 
velopment, which  includes  variation  and  selection,  feed, 
care,  environment,  etc. 

THE  TAMWORTH. 

The  Tamworth  apparently  is  the  closest  relative  of  the 
European  wild  boar,  the  Sus  Scrofa.  It  is  said  to  have 
originated  as  a  breed  in  Ireland  and  was  brought  to  Eng- 
land about  1812  by  Sir  Robert  Pell,  secretary  to  Ireland 
at  that  time.  Judging  from  the  characteristics  of  the 
Tamworth  as  discussed  in  Chapter  3,  it  is  quite  evident 
that  this  breed  is  a  direct  descendant  of  the  wild  boar. 
History  relates  that  no  crosses  were  made  with  other 
breeds.  It  was  developed  by  selection,  feed  and  care. 
Between  1847  and  1880  the  breed  was  practically  obscured 
because  there  was  no  particular  demand  for  a  hog  of  this 
type,  but  at  the  latter  date  a  demand  for  English  bacon 
was  developed  and  the  Tamworth  hog,  being  especially 
well  adapted  to  this  purpose,  was  again  brought  forth. 
Thus  it  would  seem  that  the  Tamworth,  in  its  present 
state  of  development,  is  a  recent  hog  which  at  the  same 
time  contains  many  characteristics  of  the  wild  boar.  It 
has  size,  constitution,  ruggedness,  strength,  vitality  and 
activity  all  combined.  During  the  latter  period  of  de- 
velopment also  the  Tamworth  was  kept  entirely  pure. 
Thus  the  entire  history  of  the  Tamworth  is  one  of  de- 

(78) 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE   BREEDS  79 

velopment  by  selection,  improved  care  and  feeding,  and  it 
is  in  the  truest  sense  of  the  word  a  pure  breed.  On  this 
account  the  individuals  of  the  breed  are  quite  uniform 
and  their  power  to  transmit  their  characteristics  to  their 
offspring  is  very  great. 

LARGE  YORKSHIRE. 

The  Old  Yorkshire. — As  discussed  in  the  preceding 
chapter,  the  various  sections  of  Great  Britain  produced 
different  breeds  of  swine.  The  names  of  many  of  these 
are  the  names  of  the  respective  localities.  One  of  these 
breeds  originated  in  England  was  called  Old  English. 
This  furnished  the  foundation  stock  for  the  development 
of  the  Yorkshire.  Highly  improved  Chinese  boars  from 
the  southern  country  were  imported  to  use  on  these  Old 
English  sows  to  produce  what  is  called  the  Old  Yorkshire. 
These  were  characterized  by  having  great  size,  being 
slow  to  mature,  and  having  a  form  that  was  made  up  of 
a  long  head  on  a  very  long  body  which  was  somewhat 
narrow  with  a  weak  loin  and  standing  on  long  legs.  In 
constitution,  however,  they  were  very  good.  In  quality 
they  were  rather  coarse  and  inferior,  both  in  flesh  and 
bone.  The  color  was  white  and  the  coat  long,  coarse  and 
curly  with  pale  blue  spots  on  the  skin  which  were  cov- 
ered with  white  hair.  They  also  had  large,  heavy  ears. 

The  Leicester. — In  another  locality  of  England  was 
found  what  was  called  the  Leicester  breed  of  hogs.  These 
were  similar  in  breeding  to  the  Yorkshire  and  they  were 
also  white  in  color,  large  in  size,  but  with  small  heads 
and  erect  ears.  In  quality  they  were  better  throughout 
than  the  Old  Yorkshire. 

Small  Yorkshire. — In  still  another  section  of  England 
was  produced  the  Small  Yorkshire.  These  originated  in 


80  SWINE 

a  manner  similar  to  the  Large  Yorkshire,  namely,  by 
Chinese  crosses  on  Old  English  sows,  but  they  were  bred 
and  selected  with  an  entirely  different  type  in  mind,  be- 
ing small  in  size  with  a  short  head,  compact  body  and 
short  legs.  In  quality  they  were  good  and  in  color  white. 

Then  came  the  Middle  Yorkshire  which  is  a  cross  be- 
tween the  Large  Yorkshire  and  the  Small  Yorkshire. 

Method  of  Procedure. — The  first  step  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Large  Yorkshire  was  by  using  the  Leicester 
on  the  Old  Yorkshire.  This  strain  of  hogs,  as  above  seen, 
was  similar  in  breeding  to  the  Old  Yorkshire,  but  was 
better  in  quality.  Since  they  were  developed  in  different 
localities,  it  cannot  be  said  they  are  so  closely  related  as 
to  make  this  inbreeding. 

PEDIGREE  OF  DEVELOPMENT  OF  LARGE  YORKSHIRE. 

H  f  nw™  J  Descended  from 


Small  I  Chinese \  Sus  Indica 

Yorkshire  . . 


« 


g  ^ Old  English  Hog. 

I 

M 
<3 


Leicester. 
M 


L  Yorkshire  (Lei- 
cester cross) 


Old  Unimproved 
Yorkshire 

i  *-"• 

Hog 


In  1860  the  Leicester  cross  of  the  Old  Yorkshire  was 
further  improved  by  selecting  the  largest  sows  of  this 
breed  and  mating  them  with  the  boars  of  the  Small  York- 
shire breed  or  Small  Whites.  These  were  then  bred 
among  themselves,  taking  care  that  they  were  not  too 


DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE  BREEDS  81 

closely  related.  By  proper  selection  the  size  and  con- 
stitution of  the  larger  hog  was  combined  with  the  sym- 
metry and  tendency  to  fatten  of  the  smaller  hog,  thus 
producing  a  large,  early-maturing  hog,  with  good  quality 
and  at  the  same  time  retaining  constitution,  vigor  and 
activity.  Following  this,  improvement  was  made  by 
selection  and  by  care  and  feeding.  To  summarize  this 
method  by  which  the  Large  Yorkshire  was  developed  the 
pedigree  form  on  page  80  may  be  of  assistance. 

THE  BERKSHIRE. 

The  Berkshire  originated  in  Berkshire  County,  Eng- 
land, as  a  result  of  the  work  of  breeders  in  one  of  the  pre- 
viously mentioned  isolated  communities.  This  is  what  is 
called  the  Old  English  Berkshire.  It  was  a  hog  of  great 
size,  and  in  form  was  long  and  deep  in  body  with  good 
constitution  and  well  filled  hams.  The  quality  of  the 
meat  was  said  to  be  better  than  that  of  any  other  breed 
in  England  at  the  time.  They  were  rather  poor  feeders, 
however,  attaining  maturity  at  from  two  and  one-half  to 
three  years  of  age.  In  color  they  were  buff,  sandy,  or 
reddish  brown  spotted  with  black.  The  coat  was  made 
up  of  rather  long  curly  hair  and  some  bristles.  The  ears 
were  heavy  and  hung  down  over  the  snout,  the  shoulders 
were  thick  and  heavy,  the  back  broad,  the  sides  flat,  the 
hams  thick  and  heavy,  and  the  legs  very  strong. 

This  foundation  stock  of  the  modern  improved  Berk- 
shire was  improved  by  crossing  with  individuals  of  the 
Neapolitan,  Siamese  and  Chinese  breeds  which,  as  will  be 
remembered,  belong  to  the  Sus  Indica  type  and  are  found 
in  southern  Europe.  Thus  the  modern  Berkshire  being 
a  cross  between  hogs  of  the  southern  type  and  the  orig- 
inal English  Berkshire  which  was  somewhat  of  the  Sus 


82  SWINE 

Scrofa  type,  is  essentially  a  cross  between  hogs  of  en- 
tirely different  types.  Improvement  of  this  character 
(cross-breeding)  was  completed  as  early  as  1780.  Even 
though  the  small  type  of  hog  was  used,  the  offspring 
were  selected  so  that  the  resulting  Berkshire  had  the  size 
of  the  northern  hog  combined  with  the  quality  and  the 
early-maturing  characteristic  of  the  southern  hog.  The 
modern  Berkshire  also  retained  the  good  characteristic  of 
having  the  large  proportion  of  lean  meat  that  was  present 
in  the  original  Berkshire. 

Since  the  Berkshire  after  its  original  improvement  was 
a  cross  between  hogs  of  two  entirely  different  types,  and 
on  account  of  the  laws  of  breeding  according  to  which  the 
characteristics  of  the  ancestors  may  reappear  in  the  off- 
spring, especially  when  such  are  not  easily  blended,  it 
was  found  that  the  tendency  of  the  Berkshire  was  to  re- 
vert toward  the  original  type  of  the  Old  English  Berk- 
shire. Consequently  an  occasional  out-cross  with  the 
Neapolitan,  Siamese  and  Chinese  was  made  as  late  as 
1842  to  counteract  this  continual  outcropping  of  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  Old  English  Berkshire.  The  latter  im- 
provement was  made  entirely  by  selection,  care  and  feed- 
ing. 

The  breeder  who  would  succeed  best  with  the  Berk- 
shire must  bear  in  mind  the  manner  in  which  the  breed 
was  developed  and  know  how  to  select  individuals  that 
will  not  develop  according  to  either  extreme,  the  Old 
English  Berkshire  or  the  southern  type  of  hog  as  illus- 
trated by  the  Neapolitan,  Siamese  or  Chinese. 

Berkshires  were  imported  into  the  United  States  in 
1823.  At  that  time  it  was  a  well  developed  and  highly 
improved  breed  in  England.  The  next  importation  came 
in  1832,  and  in  1839  a  large  consignment  was  brought 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE   BREEDS  83 

over.  The  conditions  in  this  country  at  that  time  were 
crude,  being  very  largely  those  of  the  frontiersman,  and 
hogs  were  allowed  to  shift  for  themselves  to  a  great  ex- 
tent. Under  such  conditions,  the  highly  improved  hog, 
as  he  was  when  he  landed,  would  naturally  have  a  ten- 
dency to.  degenerate  and  breed  and  develop  largely  ac- 
cording to  the  conditions  under  which  he  was  kept,  there- 
fore would  not  be  as  good  as  the  original.  Thus  when 
compared  with  the  originally  imported  hog,  this  Berk- 
shire created  an  unfavorable  impression  which  caused  a 
prejudice  against  the  breed  that  was  very  difficult  to 
overcome.  The  good  quality  of  the  Berkshire  meat, 
however,  maintained  the  breed,  and  further  importations 
followed  in  1865  and  later. 

During  recent  years  more  improvement  was  made  in 
this  breed  in  the  United  States  than  in  England  and  not 
so  many  were  imported.  The  prejudice  against  the  breed 
has  largely  been  overcome  and  it  now  holds  its  place 
among  the  standard  breeds. 

THE  CHESTER  WHITE. 

Original  Foundation  Stock. — The  Chester  White  is  a 
product  of  the  United  States.  In  1818  two  fine  white  pigs 
which  had  occasional  blue  spots  on  the  skin  were  brought 
from  England  by  Captain  James  Jeffrey  to  Chester 
County,  Pennsylvania.  These  were  said  to  be  large  in 
size,  had  large  ears,  neat  head  and  snout,  broad  back  and 
loin,  excellent  hams  and  short  legs.  Very  recently  an 
English  authority  has  said  that  the  Lincolnshire  Curly 
White  hogs  of  England  that  have  but  recently  come  to 
notice,  probably  are  the  foundation  stock  of  this  breed. 
They  are  similar  in  characteristics  and  the  two  pigs 
originally  imported  may  have  been  of  this  breed. 


84  SWINE 

English  China  hogs  also,  which  are  the  English  develop- 
ment of  the  original  Chinese  hog,  were  brought  to  Dela- 
ware County,  Pennsylvania,  by  Harry  Atwood  about  the 
same  time.  These  in  general  were  white  hogs,  but  had 
black,  blue  or  sandy  spots.  In  form  they  were  deep  in 
body,  a  little  low  in  the  back  and  large  in  front,  tapering 
towards  the  rear.  They  had  short  heads,  heavy  lopping 
ears,  heavy  jowls,  broad  back  and  loin,  and  short  legs. 
They  were  excellent  feeders  and  could  be  put  in  market 
condition  at  an  early  age. 

These  two  breeds,  together  with  their  offspring,  were 
crossed  among  themselves  and  also  upon  other  large, 
slow-maturing,  white  hogs  that  were  supposed  to  have 
been  brought  to  Chester  County  about  1812  by  the 
Quakers.  By  careful  selection  and  breeding,  together 
with  what  could  be  produced  by  feed  and  care,  the  Ches- 
ter White  was  produced.  The  black,  sandy,  and  blue 
spots  were  eliminated,  leaving  an  all-white  hog  that 
ranged  in  size  from  medium  to  very  large.  A  1,300- 
pound  specimen  was  exhibited  at  the  Centennial  at  Phila- 
delphia, in  1876.  They  were  long  in  body,  rather 
coarse  in  quality,  but  quiet  in  disposition.  Their  coat 
was  somewhat  thin  and  made  Up  of  straight  hair  in  gen- 
eral, but  a  little  waviness  was  not  considered  objection- 
able. The  head  was  short,  the  face  broad,  the  ears  thin 
and  projecting  forward  but  lopped  over  at  the  points,  the 
jowls  were  large,  the  neck  short  and  thick,  the  back 
broad,  the  hams  full  and  deep,  the  legs  short  and  set  well 
under,  and  the  tail  small. 

After  being  developed  the  Chester  White  was  a  very 
popular  breed.  It  was  one  of  the  oldest  pure  breeds  in 
this  country  and  was  able  to  "hold  its  own"  with  such  im- 
ported breeds  as  the  Berkshire,  Suffolk  and  Essex.  Dur- 


DEVELOPMENT   OP  THE  BREEDS  85 

ing  the  early  history  of  the  Chester  White,  following  its 
establishment  as  a  distinct  breed,  it  was  crossed  to  some 
extent  with  black  breeds,  which  resulted  in  spotted  hogs 
being  produced.  These  spots  were  again  eliminated, 
however,  leaving  the  Chester  White  as  a  white  hog.  The 
popularity  of  this  breed  during  its  early  history  created 
a  great  demand  for  Chester  Whites.  They  were  shipped 
throughout  the  country  as  well  as  to  Canada  and  to  the 
West  Indies. 

Some  unprincipled  breeders  who  did  not  have  the  fu- 
ture good  of  the  breed  at  heart,  sold  not  only  pure  brad 
individuals,  but  all  white  hogs  that  could  be  obtained, 
whether  pure  bred  or  not,  as  pure  bred  Chester  Whites. 
These,  of  course,  would  not  breed  true  to  type  and  color, 
and  many  times  produced  black  or  spotted  pigs,  which 
resulted  in  a  very  severe  set-back  to  the  breed.  It  has 
perhaps  not  recovered  to  the  present  time  from  the  un- 
popularity it  obtained  at  that  time  on  account  of  a  few 
breeders  who  were  in  the  business  for  the  money  they 
could  make  rather  than  for  the  good  of  the  breed  and 
honesty  in  their  own  business.  One  breeder  is  said  to 
have  bred  and  raised  a  few  individuals  between  1866  and 
1877  and  to  have  shipped  annually,  for  breeding  purposes, 
as  high  as  2,500  to  2,900  hogs.  Further  improvement  was 
made  by  selection  toward  reducing  the  coarseness  and 
improving  the  quality. 

Todd's  Improved  Chester.— In  1833  Joseph  Raskins 
brought  to  Wakefield,  Ohio,  from  Massachusetts,  a  By- 
field  boar.  This  was  an  early  hog  of  that  country  prob- 
ably the  result  of  various  crosses  of  different  breeds.  It 
was  a  large,  slow-maturing  hog,  but  a  splendid  individual. 
Its  color  was  white  and  its  legs  rather  long.  Mr.  Has- 
kins  also  brought  with  him  a  sow  of  what  was  called  the 
Otterdale  breed,  which  was  probably  of  similar  origin. 


86  SWINE 

The  following  year,  1834,  Kneeland  Todd  brought  to 
Ohio  from  Connecticut  a  Norfolk  Thin  Rind  boar,  which 
was  imported  from  England  by  William  K.  Townsend  in 
1833.  Mr.  Todd  also  brought  a  white  sow  of  the  native 
grass  breed  from  East  Haven,  Connecticut.  These  were 
rioted  for  their  early-maturing  and  good  feeding  char- 
acteristics and  the  excellent  quality  of  their  meat.  These 
two  men,  together  with  a  twin  brother  of  Mr.  Todd's, 
bred  their  respective  herds  with  great  care,  and  then 
crossed  the  best  of  the  two  herds,  which  were  then  said 
to  be  the  best  in  the  state. 

In  1848  a  man  by  name  of  Joel  Mead  had  some  very 
fine  specimens  of  pigs,  known  as  the  large  grass  breed,  at 
the  county,  fair  at  Norfolk,  Ohio.  Mr.  Todd  bought  the 
best  boar  pig  from  this  herd  to  use  upon  his  own  herd. 
The  pigs  of  this  mating  were  said  to  weigh  365  pounds  at 
nine  months  of  age  and  were  able  to  win  from  all  other 
hogs  shown  at  that  time. 

At  a  still  later  date,  about  1862,  a  boar  called  Nor- 
mandy, which  probably  was  of  French  origin,  was 
brought  into  the  herd.  This  boar  was  very  characteristic 
in  type.  In  color  he  was  pure  white,  very  stylish  in  ap- 
pearance, medium  in  quality,  had  a  coat  of  fine  curly  hair, 
a  face  that  was  rather  sharp  and  a  little  long,  a  strong 
neck  that  was  short  and  thick,  a  most  excellent  back  and 
loin  as  well  as  hams,  and  short  straight  legs,  standing 
well  up  on  his  toes,  and  a  light,  fine  tail.  By  using  this 
hog,  as  well  as  the  boar  of  the  grass  breed  already  men- 
tioned, on  the  original  herds,  the  Todd  strain  of  the  Ches- 
ter Whites  was  produced. 

In  1865  Mr.  Todd  also  used  a  boar  sired  by  a  pure 
Chester  White  of  Chester  County,  Pennsylvania,  from 
one  of  his  sows.  In  1867  Mr.  S.  H.  Todd,  a  son  of  the 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE   BREEDS  87 

twin  brother  of  the  original  Mr.  Todd,  crossed  these  hogs 
on  the  original  Chester  Whites  from  Chester  County, 
Pennsylvania,  using  six  or  seven  crosses.  This  produced 
what  is  known  as  Todd's  Improved  Chester.  It  was  an 
excellent  white  hog  of  very  uniform  type.  The  name 
Todd  was  later  dropped  and  only  the  term  Improved 
Chester  White  used.  This  then  is  a  cross  between  the 
original  Chester  White  of  Pennsylvania  and  the  Todd 
Chester  as  originally  produced  in  Ohio.  The  former 
contained  the  blood  of  English  pigs  as  well  as  that  of  the 
early  white  hogs  of  Pennsylvania,  while  the  latter  con- 
tained the  blood  of  the  early  white  hogs  of  Connecticut 
and  Massachusetts,  and  the  white  boar  Normandy  pre- 
sumably of  French  origin,  together  with  the  blood  of  the 
original  Chester  Whites. 

Ohio  Improved  Chester  (O.  I.  C.). — This  strain  of  the 
Chester  originated  in  the  hands  of  L.  B.  Silver,  who  was 
said  to  be  a  close  student  of  animal  form  and  character- 
istics and  who  bred  for  improvement  in  swine.  He  se- 
lected the  Chester  White  with  which  to  make  his  im- 
provement and  obtained  the  foundation  stock  for  his 
herd  from  Chester  County,  Pennsylvania,  selecting  only 
what  he  considered  to  be  the  best  individuals  and  as  large 
a  number  as  available.  He  had  in  mind  the  development 
of  as  nearly  an  ideal  hog  as  possible  for  the  production 
of  pork.  His  idea  in  selection  was  to  correct  as  far  as 
he  could  all  the  weak  points  in  the  different  individuals 
used  in  the  breeding  herd. 

After  having  established  and  developed  his  herd  they 
were  called  the  Ohio  Improved  Chesters  (O.  I.  C.).  They 
were  said  at  the  time  to  be  a  better  hog  than  the  original 
Chester  White,  having  more  quality,  more  uniformity, 
and  better  form.  During  recent  years,  however,  whatever 


88  SWINE 

difference  there  may  have  been  between  the  different 
strains  has  disappeared.  And  even  though  there  are  dif- 
ferent record  associations  for  the  two  strains,  they  are 
considered  in  general  as  hogs  of  the  same  breed,  and  the 
tendency  at  the  present  time  is  for  the  two  factions  to 
combine.  Indeed,  each  year  marks  progress  in  this  direc- 
tion. 

THE  DUROC-JERSEY. 

The  origin  of  the  Duroc-Jersey  is  not  definitely  known. 
Red  hogs  were,  at  an  early  date,  found  in  different  parts 
of  the  world;  as  already  stated,  the  Tamworth  found  in 
Great  Britain  was  of  this  color.  Many  of  the  early  Berk- 
shires  found  in  England  also  had  considerable  red  on 
them.  Red  hogs  were  also  known  to  exist  in  northern 
Africa  from  whence  negro  slaves  were  imported  to  this 
country.  Red  hogs  were  bred  in  New  Jersey  as  early  as 
1820.  They  were  simply  called  Red  Hogs  at  first,  but 
later  were  called  Jersey  Reds.  Since  the  Tamworth  was 
not  considered  a  valuable  hog  at  this  time,  it  is  not  prob- 
able that  it  entered  into  the  development  of  the  Jersey 
Red.  And  since  the  latter  hog  also  was  somewhat  simi- 
lar in  characteristics  to  the  original  Berkshire,  it  is  pos- 
sible that  they  were  related  to  the  Old  English  Berk- 
shire. Red  hogs  were  also  bred  about  the  same  time  in 
Saratoga  County,  New  York.  These  received  the  name 
of  Duroc.  About  1830  red  hogs  were  also  bred  in  Con- 
necticut and  were  called  the  Red  Berkshires,  and  some  of 
these  were  brought  to  New  York  and  crossed  with  the 
Durocs.  In  Vermont  the  same  type  of  red  hog  was  be- 
ing bred,  but  there  it  was  called  the  Red  Rock.  About 
1837  four  red  shotes  were  said  to  have  been  imported 
from  Spain  and  taken  to  Kentucky.  These  may  also 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE   BREEDS  89 

have  entered  into  the  development  of  the  Duroc-Jersey 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  United  States. 

Durocs. — About  1877  the  breeders  of  red  hogs  in  New 
York  state  agreed  upon  a  standard  of  excellence  and  this 
was  also  adopted  by  the  Connecticut  and  Vermont  breed- 
ers. This  type  of  hog  known  as  the  Duroc  was  medium 
in  size,  very  compact  and  close  to  the  ground.  They 
were  good  in  constitution,  medium  in  quality,  and  of  a 
cherry  red  color.  They  had  a  rather  small  head,  light 
ears  and  short  thick  neck.  The  shoulders  were  full  but 
smooth,  the  back  and  loin  were  strong  and  wide ;  the 
rump  also  was  wide,  the  hams  plump  and  full,  and  the 
legs  short  and  straight. 

Jersey  Reds. — The  characteristics  of  the  Jersey  Reds 
bred  in  New  Jersey  were  as  follows :  In  size  they  were 
large  and  growthy,  being  able  to  furnish  a  dressed  weight 
of  800  pounds  at  one  and  one-half  years  of  age,  and  1,300 
pounds  live  weight  at  two  years.  They  were,  however, 
slow  to  mature.  In  form  they  were  long  in  body,  in  con- 
stitution they  were  good,  having  good  chest  capacity, 
but  in  quality  they  were  coarse.  The  bones  were  coarse 
and  the  hair  inclined  to  bristles  on  the  back,  while  the 
flesh  was  coarse-grained.  The  color  in  general  was  from 
red  to  dark  red.  Occasionally,  however,  they  were  sandy 
and  often  patched  with  white.  The  snout  was  long,  and 
the  head  small  in  proportion  to  the  size  and  length  of 
body.  The  ears  were  large  and  lopped  over,  and  the  legs 
long,  giving  the  hog  an  upstanding,  rangy  appearance. 
The  tail  was  heavy  and  bushy.  The  hog  was  considered 
especially  valuable  for  its  size,  strong  constitution,  and 
capacity  for  growth. 

At  a  later  date,  about  1883,  the  breeders  of  these  two 
different  types  of  red  hogs  joined  forces  and  adopted  a 


90  SWINE 

common  standard  of  excellence  with  Duroc-Jersey  as  the 
name  for  the  breed. 

THE  POLAND-CHINA. 

The  Poland-China  is  an  American  breed  and  was  de- 
veloped in  Butler  and  Warren  counties  in  southeastern 
Ohio  between  the  Big  Miami  and  the  Little  Miami 
Rivers.  The  breed  was  developed  under  ideal  conditions 
between  the  years  1835  and  1840. 

Origin  of  Poland-China  Foundation  Stock.  —  The 
United  States  did  not  have  a  wild  hog  similar  to  the  wild 
boar  of  Europe.  The  so-called  wild  hog,  or  razor-back, 
of  the  United  States  is  simply  a  degeneration  of  the  hog 
originally  domesticated.  De  Soto  brought  swine  to  the 
United  States  from  Spain  in  1538.  Nova  Scotia  and  New 
Foundland  received  hogs  from  England  in  1553.  Canada 
got  hogs  from  France  in  1608,  and  English  pigs  were 
taken  to  Virginia  in  1609.  The  climate,  especially  in  the 
southern  states,  was  very  favorable  to  the  production  and 
development  of  swine,  and  the  pigs  that  were  bred  in  this 
country  were  allowed  to  roam  in  the  forests  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent.  They  increased  so  rapidly  that  eighteen 
years  after  Jamestown  was  founded  it  was  said  that  the 
city  had  to  be  palisaded  to  keep  the  hogs  out.  Many  of 
these  were  allowed  to  breed  in  the  forests  and  naturally 
reverted  in  form  and  other  characteristics  toward  their 
ancestor,  the  wild  boar.  This  was  especially  true  when 
they  were  kept  under  native  conditions.  Others  that 
were  kept  domesticated  developed  from  time  to  time  in 
different  places  in  the  eastern  states  and  were  the  be- 
ginnings of  the  so-called  local  breeds  that  were  later  used 
in  establishing  the  Poland-China  breed. 

Prior  to  the  time  the  Poland-China  was  established, 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE   BREEDS  91 

the  western  part  of  the  United  States,  now  the  central 
part,  was  being  settled.  Immigrants  came  from  different 
countries,  as  well  as  from  the  eastern  states,  and  settled 
in  different  sections  of  the  West.  Hogs  were  brought 
from  nearly  all  sections  of  the  world  where  good  hogs 
were  being  bred.  These  in  some  cases,  after  being 
brought  here,  were  bred  pure,  but  in  most  instances  were 
crossed,  which  established  types  of  swine  in  this  country 
in  a  somewhat  similar  manner  to  the  breeds  that  were 
originally  developed  in  England.  But  these  different 
types  that  were  developed  in  the  United  States  cannot 
be  called  breeds  because  they  were  a  mixture  of  several 
breeds  and  not  bred  long  enough  to  establish  a  uniform 
type.  Consequently  they  were  more  of  the  nature  of 
mongrels. 

Cincinnati  at  that  time  was  the  western  metropolis  and 
was  the  center  of  the  pork  packing  industry.  Conditions 
in  the  country  around  that  metropolis,  including  the  cli- 
mate, soil,  etc.,  were  admirable  for  the  production  of 
swine.  Feed  was  abundant  and  cheap,  and  the  hogs  were 
able  to  gather  a  good  share  of  their  living  during  the 
summer  season  in  the  forests.  The  climate  was  warm, 
which  did  not  necessitate  very  much  expense  for  shelter, 
and  shade  and  water  were  abundant,  which  improved  the 
conditions  for  pork  production.  The  roads,  however, 
were  not  well  developed.  Railroads  were  practically  un- 
known, and  wagon  roads  were  poor  and  few  in  number. 
Hogs,  therefore,  were  developed  in  such  a  manner  that 
they  could  walk  to  market.  This  again  was  favorable  for 
the  production  of  a  good  type  of  hog.  The  inhabitants 
were  of  a  thrifty,  industrious  sort,  and  consequently  took 
good  care  of  their  stock.  They  came  to  this  part  of  the 
country  from  various  sections  of  the  older  states,  north, 


92  SWINE 

east  and  south,  as  well  as  from  foreign  countries,  and 
brought  with  them  their  native  hogs.  These  were  further 
developed,  other  hogs  were  imported,  and  finally  all  of 
these  were  blended  together  in  what  is  now  called  the 
Poland-China.  Some  of  the  more  prominent  types  of 
hogs  that  were  brought  to  the  Miami  Valley  and  used  in 
establishing  this  breed  are  as  follows : 

The  Poland  Hog.-r-This  hog  was  developed  about  1838 
in  Chester,  Butler  County,  Ohio,  by  a  man  from  Poland 
whose  name  was  Asher.  He  claimed  that  they  were  im- 
ported from  England  and  at  the  time  called  them  the 
Sandy  Berkshires  of  England.  They  were,  however,  later 
called  the  Poland  Hogs.  These  hogs  were  noted  for  their 
large  size,  early  maturity,  and  vigorous  growth.  In  form 
they  somewhat  resembled  the  Berkshire  except  that  they 
were  deeper  in  the  body,  flatter  in  the  sides,  and  stood  on 
shorter  legs.  Their  color  was  either  red  or  bright  sandy, 
with  small  black  specks  all  over  the  body.  In  constitu- 
tion they  were  very  good  and,  as  indicated  by  their  pre- 
potency in  transmitting  their  color,  they  may  have  been 
bred  in  this  form  for  a  considerable  length  of  time.  To 
show  that  this  type  of  hog  was  not  a  Polish  or  a  Russian 
hog  it  need  only  be  mentioned  that  these  were  said  to  be 
small  as  well  as  large,  reddish  brown  or  yellowish  in 
color,  with  a  broad  brown  stripe  along  the  back.  In  pn> 
lificacy  also  they  were  not  good  while  the  Poland  hog 
was  very  good.  The  Russian  hog  also  was  a  poor  feeder. 

Russian  Hog  of  the  United  States. — This  was  a  large, 
white,  slow-maturing  hog,  as  described  about  1840  in 
Ohio.  It  had  good  action,  long  body  and  coarse  quality. 
It  had  a  long  head,  long  coarse  hair,  and  ears  that  were 
longer  and  narrower  than  those  of  the  average  hog  of  the 
country.  These  were  also  pointed  and  projected  forward. 


DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE  BREEDS  93 

They  had  long  legs,  thick  shoulders,  flat  sides,  hams  that 
were  only  medium,  and  a  poor  back  and  loin.  This  was 
rather  narrow  and  sharp  and  is  the  cause  of  the  sharp 
back  that  was  so  prominent  in  many  of  the  Poland-China 
hogs  in  later  years.  In  prolificacy,  however,  they  were 
good,  having  from  nine  to  twelve  pigs  to  a  litter. 

The  Byfield. — This  type  of  hog  traces  its  origin  to  east- 
ern Massachusetts,  where  it  was  developed  originally 
from  a  single  hog  of  outstanding  individual  merit,  se- 
lected from  a  bunch  of  market  hogs.  In  about  1842  this 
hog  was  designated  as  having  great  size,  good  length  of 
body,  good  constitution,  thin  coat,  short  snout,  dished 
face,  and  heavy  lopped  ears  pointing  toward  the  nose. 
The  jowls  were  large,  sides  long  and  flat,  and  the  back 
broad.  In  color  it  was  white. 

The  China  Hog. — This  hog  was  brought  to  the  Miami 
Valley  by  the  Quakers  of  Pennsylvania  in  1816.  These 
hogs  were  mixed  in  color,  being  mainly  white,  but  some 
individuals  had  sandy  spots  which  in  turn  had  black  spots 
within  them,  indicating  that  they  were  considerably 
mixed.  They  had  the  early-maturing  and  fattening  ten- 
dencies well  developed,  were  fine  in  quality  and  quiet  in 
disposition.  This  is  one  of  the  temporary  local  strains 
developed  from  the  original  Chinese  swine. 

The  Irish  Pig. — These  were  rather  small  and  compactly 
formed  pigs  with  good  length  of  body  and  a  good  middle. 
They  had  thin  coats,  pointed  upright  ears,  good  hams  and 
legs.  Irish  pigs  were  brought  to  the  United  States  and 
were  crossed  with  other  imported  pigs,  especially  those 
from  England  such  as  the  Berkshire,  Suffolk,  Yorkshire, 
and  English  China.  This  produced  what  was  called  dur- 
ing earlier  times  in  the  United  States  the  Irish  Grazier, 
which  was  later  taken  to  Ohio  and  helped  to  develop  the 
Poland-China. 


94  SWINE 

Irish  Grazier. — This  pig  probably  has  its  peculiar  name 
because  its  foundation  stock  was  the  Irish  pig  and  be- 
cause of  the  fact  that  it  was  allowed  to  roam  and  get  a 
large  share  of  its  living  by  grazing.  These  pigs  were 
white  in  general,  but  had  a  few  black  spots.  They  were 
very  early-maturing  hogs  with  a  tendency  to  take  on  con- 
siderable fat.  They  had  a  fine  coat,  upright  ears,  light 
jowls,  all  of  which  helped  to  give  the  Poland-Chinas  their 
fine  coat  and  symmetrical  form. 

Berkshires. — The  Berkshire  was  also  introduced  into 
the  Miami  Valley  between  1835  and  1840  and  used  in  de- 
veloping the  Poland-China.  Many  of  the  hogs  used  dur- 
ing the  early  part  of  this  period  were  white,  but  with  the 
Berkshire  came  the  solid  black  hog  with  six  white  points. 
This  probably  is  responsible  to  a  considerable  degree  for 
the  present  fancy  color  of  the  Poland-China. 

Development  of  the  Breed. — The  above  mentioned 
types  of  swine  were  taken  to  the  Miami  Valley,  together 
with  still  other  of  the  early  hogs  of  the  country,  and  all 
bred  together,  which  furnished  the  original  Poland-China. 
Many  of  these,  as  will  be  seen,  were  composite  breeds, 
which  in  turn  were  made  up  of  a  considerable  number  of 
other  types  and  breeds,  all  of  which  had  a  tendency  to  de- 
stroy type  and  break  up  the  entity  of  the  hog  into  the 
various  characters  of  the  race  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
possibility  of  the  Poland-China  reverting  toward  any  par- 
ticular type  is  largely  eliminated. 

The  development  of  the  Poland-China  cannot  be  ac- 
credited to  any  one  man,  but  to  the  farmers  of  the  Miami 
Valley  in  general.  The  packers  of  Cincinnati  also  took 
great  interest  in  developing  the  hogs  of  the  country  so  as 
to  have  the  best  possible  pork  product.  In  many  instances 
the  packers  bought  at  their  own  expense  considerable 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE   BREEDS  95 

numbers  of  high-class  boars  of  various  breeds,  importing 
and  distributing  them  among  the  farmers. 

At  this  time  one  of  the  most  prominent  breeders  of 
Poland-China  swine  was  John  Harkrader  of  Warren 
County.  Another  man  of  considerable  influence,  but  more 
along  the  lines  of  showing  and  advertising,  was  David 
Magie.  The  latter's  particular  stronghold  was  the  show 
ring.  He  also  bred  Poland-Chinas,  but  bought  or  bor- 
rowed a  good  many  of  his  individuals  for  the  show  from 
the  herd  of  Mr.  Harkrader.  He  was  a  past-master  in  de- 
veloping and  showing  a  herd  to  the  best  advantage.  To 
him  probably  may  first  be  accredited  the  art  of  washing 
hogs  before  being  taken  to  the  show  ring.  This  was  at 
the  time  a  trade  secret  of  his,  and  gave  the  impression 
that  his  hogs  were  much  better  bred  and  much  better  in 
quality.  Consequently  he  established  a  great  reputation 
and  sold  a  great  many  hogs.  Furthermore,  on  this  ac- 
count an  attempt  was  made  to  call  this  particular  new 
breed  of  hogs  the  Magie  Hog. 

At  the  convention  of  swine  breeders  which  was  held  at 
Springfield,  Illinois,  in  1870,  this  name  was  agreed  upon, 
but  some  breeders  wanted  the  name  of  Miami  Valley 
adopted,  which  should  indicate  the  point  of  origin  of  the 
breed.  Two  years  later,  in  1872,  when  the  convention  of 
swine  breeders  was  held  at  Indianapolis,  another  effort 
was  made  to  adopt  the  name  of  Miami  Valley,  but  the 
influence  of  the  western  breeders  prevailed  and  the  name 
of  Poland-China  was  adopted.  While  the  Poland  hog  and 
the  China  hog  were  used  in  the  development  of  this  breed, 
it  cannot  be  said  that  they  were  any  more  prominent 
than  many  other  so-called  breeds  or  types  that  were  used. 
When  first  established  the  Poland-China  breed  was  a 
large  spotted  hog,  rapid  growing  and  of  good  quality.  Be- 


96  SWINE 

fore  the  name  Poland-China  was  finally  adopted,  it  was 
called  Large  Spotted  Hog,  and  was  also  known  by  vari- 
ous other  names  in  different  parts  of  the  country  as  fol- 
lows: Magie,  Butler  County,  Warren  County,  Miami 
Valley,  Poland,  China,  Great  Western,  Shaker,  Union 
Village,  Dick's  Creek,  Gregory's  Creek,  and  Moore.  As 
the  development  of  the  Poland-China  proceeded  the  color 
was  changed  from  spotted  to  solid  black  with  six  white 
points.  The  quality,  smoothness,  and  compactness  were 
improved,  which  resulted  in  loss  of  size,  growthiness  and 
prolificacy  to  such  an  extent,  as  previously  outlined,  that 
the  usefulness  of  the  breed  was  considerably  impaired. 
It  cannot  be  said  that  the  Poland-China  during  later 
years  is  any  better  for  the  production  of  pork  than  it  was 
after  being  first  established.  This  also  had  the  effect  of 
developing  the  other  extreme,  which  is  now  called  the 
large  type  of  Poland-China.  The  latter  was  produced 
by  selection  and  breeding. 

The  Ohio  Poland-China  record  was  first  established  in 
1877  and  since  that  time  the  American,  Central,  Standard, 
and  Southwestern  records  were  established.  During  re- 
cent years  the  Central  and  the  Ohio  records  combined  to 
form  what  is  now  called  the  National  Poland-China  Rec- 
ord. 

THE  HAMPSHIRE  (THIN  RIND). 

The  history  of  the  Hampshire  as  bred  in  the  United 
States  today  traces  back  through  Canada,  and  through 
Hampshire  and  Essex  to  Cambridge,  England.  As  stated 
in  Chester  White  history,  Norfolk,  England,  also  had 
hogs  of  this  character,  because  the  Norfolk  Thin  Rind 
was  imported  to  the  United  States  in  the  development  of 
the  Chester  White.  The  characteristics  of  these  "sheeted 
pigs,"  as  they  were  called  in  Essex  and  Cambridge,  were 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  BREEDS  97 

as  follows :  They  were  a  large  hardy  hog  with  good  con- 
stitution, thin  skin,  and  of  good  quality.  They  were  rapid 
growers,  good  feeders,  black  in  color,  with  a  white  belt 
running  around  the  front  part  of  the  body,  including  the 
shoulders  and  front  legs.  In  prolificacy  they  were  very 
good. 

Holland  also  had  a  belted  breed  as  early  as  1700. 
These,  however,  were  slightly  different  in  form  from  the 
American  Hampshire.  They  were  heavier  in  weight, 
longer  and  deeper  in  body,  and  had  a  head  that  was 
somewhat  longer. 

The  original  name  of  the  Hampshire  hog  in  the  United 
States  was  McKay  Hog,  a  name  given  to  it  in  honor  of 
the  importer  who  brought  the  hogs  from  England  to 
Massachusetts  about  the  year  1800.  In  1830  this  type  of 
hog  was  also  brought  to  New  York  from  Canada  and 
they  were  then  known  as  the  Hampshire.  They  were 
also  called  the  Ring  Middle  Hog.  The  Hampshire  found 
its  way  to  the  western  states  about  1835.  Henry  James 
of  Boone  County,  Kentucky,  upon  his  return  from  the 
east,  reported  having  seen  some  exceptionally  fine  hogs. 
Not  being  interested  in  this  class  of  live  stock  himself,  he 
did  not  do  anything  further  than  to  report  the  facts.  In 
1835  a  consignment  of  fourteen  or  fifteen  of  these  hogs 
was  bought  by  Major  Garnett  of  Boone  County,  who  had 
them  sent  to  Philadelphia ;  from  here  they  were  driven  or 
hauled  in  wagons  to  Pittsburg,  and  from  there  taken  by 
steamer  to  Kentucky.  From  this  point  they  spread  to 
Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  other  states,  and  were  known 
as  the  Belted  Breed.  After  this  they  were  crossed  with 
other  breeds  of  the  country  to  the  extent  that  in  1861  it 
was  said  that  it  was  doubtful  whether  a  Hampshire  could 
be  found  pure.  Later,  however,  it  was  again  developed 


98  SWINE 

in  its  original  form  and  was  given  the  name  of  Thin  Rind. 
They  were  given  this  name  probably  by  the  packers  be- 
cause they  had  a  thin,  soft  and  mellow  skin. 

The  American  Thin  Rind  Association  was  incorporated 
by  six  Boone  County  farmers  in  1893.  At  this  time  only 
twelve  herds  were  eligible  to  registry.  There"  was  not 
much  demand  for  hogs  of  this  kind ;  hence  they  were  se- 
lected very  carefully  and  only  the  individuals  recorded 
that  were  the  best  of  the  breed.  During  recent  years, 
however,  since  1900,  the  breed  has  been  boomed  consider- 
ably. The  herds  being  so  carefully  selected,  the  breeders 
made  exhibitions  at  some  of  the  big  hog  shows,  notably 
the  International  Live  Stock  Exposition  of  Chicago, 
which  gained  for  them  an  enviable  reputation.  Because 
they  had  selected  so  closely,  their  hogs  presented  a  very 
fine  appearance  and  were  greatly  sought  after  by  the 
packers.  This  resulted  in  great  advertisement  for  the 
breed  and  set  on  foot  an  unusual  boom.  The  result  of 
this,  which  is  going  on  at  the  present  time,  is  that  there 
is  such  a  demand  for  hogs  of  this  breed  that  they  cannot 
be  selected  as  carefully  as  formerly  and  more  breeders 
are  coming  into  the  field,  some  of  whom  may  be  lacking 
in  judging  ability  and  are  selling  poor  individuals  for 
breeding  purposes  as  well  as  the  best.  The  result  of 
this  will  be  inevitable ;  the  breed  will  be  unable  to  main- 
tain the  reputation  that  it  has  gained  during  recent  years. 

CHESHIRE  OR  JEFFERSON  COUNTY  SWINE 
OF  NEW  YORK. 

This  breed  originated,  as  indicated  by  the  name,  in  Jef- 
ferson County,  New  York.  It  was  produced  originally 
by  Mr.  A.  C.  Clark,  by  crossing  Yorkshire  boars  on  sows 
from  Cheshire,  England,  and  also  by  using  the  Improved 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE   BREEDS  99 

Large  Yorkshire  and  Suffolk  hogs  on  the  native  white 
stock  of  the  country.  Between  1850  and  1865  Mr.  Clark 
was  the  leading  breeder.  Following  this  time  other  breed- 
ers took  it  up  and  the  type  was  slightly  changed,  but 
later,  about  1884,  the  various  breeders  got  together,  per- 
fected an  organization,  and  adopted  a  standard.  This 
breed  is  bred  today  primarily  in  York  State. 

ESSEX  SWINE. 

This  is  another  English  breed  originating  in  Essex 
County,  England.  The  foundation  stock  was  the  old 
Essexshire  hog,  which  was  probably  developed,  as  pre- 
viously outlined,  in  one  of  the  isolated  local  communities. 
It  was  a  large  hog,  rather  gaunt  and  slab-sided  in  form, 
with  a  short  head;  coarse  in  quality,  restless  in  disposi- 
tion, and  varying  in  color,  being  principally  black  with 
white  snout,  white  legs  and  shoulders;  somewhat  com- 
parable to  the  color  of  the  Hampshire.  The  early  de- 
velopment of  the  Essexshire  was  under  the  direction  of 
Lord  Western  about  1830.  Neapolitan  hogs  were  im- 
ported from  southern  Europe  and  crossed  upon  the 
old  Essex  hog,  but  this  line  of  breeding  was  unsuc- 
cessful on  account  of  inbreeding  being  practiced.  Fol- 
lowing this  the  Essex  was  crossed  on  the  native  stock 
such  as  Sussex  and  Berkshire  swine.  The  Neapolitan 
cross,  however,  did  one  noted  thing  for  the  breed.  It  en- 
tirely obliterated  the  white  of  the  old  Essex  hog  and  left 
a  hog  with  a  black  color  similar  to  the  Neapolitan. 

Following  the  work  of  Lord  Western  came  Fisher 
Hobbs.  He  continued  to  improve  the  herd  of  Lord  West- 
ern, which  finally  resulted  in  the  modern  improved  Essex. 
The  improvement  at  this  time  was  effected  entirely  by  se- 
lection, proper  breeding,  care  and  feed,  and  the  breed 


100  SWINE 

finally  was  called  the  Improved  Essex,  which  is  the  black, 
plump,  fat  hog  of  today  known  by  that  name. 

LARGE  BLACKS  AND  "LINCOLN." 

The  Large  Blacks  and  the  Lincolnshire  Curly  Whites 
of  England  are  the  production  of  isolated  communities, 
as  previously  outlined. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
METHODS  OF  BREEDING. 

In  the  practice  of  swine  breeding  there  are  three  prin- 
cipal methods  in  vogue, — breeding  pure-bred  hogs,  grad- 
ing, and  cross  breeding. 

• 

PURE  BRED  SWINE. 

The  pure  bred  hog  is  one  whose  sire  and  dam  are  both 
pure  bred.  During  the  earlier  history  of  the  breeds,  a 
pure  bred  animal  was  one  from  a  herd  or  strain  that  had 
been  bred  along  certain  lines  for  a  considerable  length  of 
time.  Also  when  the  breeds  were  being  developed,  vari- 
ous record  associations  used  to  accept  for  record  an  ani- 
mal that  was  produced  from  stock  without  any  particular 
breeding  by  a  number  of  crosses  with  a  pure  bred  sire. 
This  was  considered  essentially  a  pure  bred  animal. 
While  it  is  true  that  such  a  system  never  would  eliminate 
the  last  trace  of  unimproved  blood,  an  animal  bred  in  this 
way  is  for  all  intents  and  purposes  as  good  as  a  pure 
bred  animal.  At  the  present  time,  however,  in  order  to 
be  considered  pure  bred  an  animal  must  be  recorded  in 
some  one  of  the  various  records. 

The  practice  of  pure  breeding  in  itself  consists  of  vari- 
ous degrees  of  breeding  as  follows :  Out  crossing,  Line 
breeding,  Close  breeding,  and  Inbreeding. 

Out  Crossing. — This  consists  in  the  mating  of  animals 
that  are  both  pure  bred  and  of  the  same  breed,  but  not  or 
very  remotely  related.  This  is  considered  a  good  kind  of 

(101) 


SWINE 

breeding,  but  by  many  breeders  it  is  not  considered  to  be 
as  good  a  practice  as  line  breeding  because  there  seems 
to  be  a  tendency  toward  greater  variation. 

Line  Breeding. — Line  breeding  consists  in  mating  ani- 
mals that  are  pure  bred  and  of  the  same  breed  which  are 
bred  along  similar  lines  or  of  the  same  family.  By  many 
breeders  this  is  considered  the  best  form  of  breeding.  It 
brings  together  animals  that  are  similarly  bred,  and  con- 
sequently more  or  less  similar  in  type.  This  then  will 
be  more  conducive  to  the  establishment  and  develop- 
ment of  a  particular  type  of  swine  than  where  out  cross- 
ing is  practiced. 

Close  Breeding. — This  is  one  degree  closer  than  line 
breeding;  that  is,  it  consists  in  the  mating  of  animals  that 
are  more  closely  related,  but  still  not  close  enough  to  be 
considered  in  the  next  class,  namely,  inbreeding.  This 
method  of  breeding  is  successfully  practiced  by  a  great 
many  breeders.  If  the  animals  are  properly  selected  so 
that  they  have  no  weak  points  in  common  which  may  be 
transmitted  and  fixed  in  the  offspring,  it  is  a  good  prac- 
tice because  it  has  a  greater  tendency  to  fix  points,  either 
good  or  bad,  than  either  out  crossing  or  line  breeding.  If 
the  animals  are  so  mated  that  they  have  only  good  points 
in  common,  these  will  naturally  be  more  readily  trans- 
mitted to  and  more  permanently  fixed  in  the  offspring. 

Inbreeding. — Inbreeding  involves  the  mating  of  parent 
and  offspring  or  brother  and  sister.  This  form  of  breed- 
ing may  be  successful,  and  occasionally  is  successful,  but 
it  is  considered  in  general  by  the  swine  breeders  of  the 
country  as  a  poor  practice.  While  experimental  data  on 
this  point  are  lacking,  it  is  not  definitely  known  just  what 
may  be  expected  from  such  breeding  operations.  How- 
ever, the  general  opinion  among  breeders  is  that  inbreed- 


METHODS  OF  BREEDING  103 

ing  will  result  in  loss  of  size,  vitality,  and  thriftiness  in 
the  offspring.  The  pigs  may  be  farrowed  weak  and  die 
before  very  long,  or  if  they  live  they  may  not  grow  as 
rapidly  and  develop  size  as  they  should;  hence  they  will 
be  less  profitable. 

Occasionally  it  is  recognized  that  inbreeding  results 
in  the  production  of  outstanding  individuals.  This  be- 
ing true,  it  is  well  to  consider  what  is  the  probable  com- 
position or  make-up  of  the  pigs  of  a  litter,  whether  by  in- 
breeding or  out  crossing. 

Character  of  Offspring. — As  previously  noted  under  the 
subject  head  of  swine  judging,  a  pig  is  made  up  of  a 
number  of  individual  parts  and  general  characteristics 
that  are  called  characters.  That  is,  the  pig  has  individual 
parts  such  as  snout,  head,  ears,  feet,  legs,  shoulders,  etc. 
Then  it  has  general  characteristics  such  as  quality,  color, 
form,  proportion  of  lean  to  fat  meat,  etc.,  all  of  which  may 
be  taken  as  separate  considerations  which,  when  properly 
put  together,  make  up  the  individual.  If  it  can  be  im- 
agined that  all  of  these  characters  were  dissected,  or 
taken  separately  and  then  put  together,  it  can  easily  be 
seen  that  the  complete  hog  as  finally  made  will  be  good 
or  bad  in  proportion  as  the  various  parts  which  go  to 
make  up  the  individual  are  good  or  bad. 

In  general  it  is  said  that  a  pig  receives  one-half  of  its 
characters  from  its  immediate  parents,  one-fourth  from 
its  grandparents,  one-eighth  from  its  great-grandparents, 
and  so  on  backward.  From  this  it  can  easily  be  seen  that 
often  pigs  from  the  same  litter  are  not  necessarily  re- 
lated in  every  particular.  Certain  characters  represented 
by  different  pigs  may  have  originated  from  entirely  dif- 
ferent sources  ranging  back  of  the  immediate  parents 
through  the  grand-parents,  great-grand-parents,  and  so  on 


104  SWINE 

indefinitely.  This  is  quite  evident  from  observation  of 
pigs  of  the  same  litter,  some  of  which  may  be  entirely 
different  in  general  form,  quality,  etc.,  from  the  rest  of  the 
litter.  This  being  true,  it  is  clearly  evident  that  inbreed- 
ing,— as  for  instance,  when  brother  and  sister,  because 
they  happen  to  belong  to  the  same  litter,  are  mated,  is 
not  necessarily  inbreeding  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the 
term  because  the  pair  may  not  be  closely  related  in  re- 
spect to  all  the  characters.  Granting  that  inbreeding, 
because  of  mating  individuals  whose  characters  are  re- 
lated, results  in  the  production  of  inferior  offspring, 
such  matings  may  still  produce  outstanding  individu- 
als, while  at  other  times,  which  would  happen  more  often, 
they  would  produce  very  poor  results.  However,  it  has 
not  as  yet  been  demonstrated  that  the  mating  of  indi- 
viduals all  of  whose  characters  are  closely  related  neces- 
sarily produces  inferior  offspring.  Such  being  the  facts, 
it  is  quite  clear  that  proper  breeding  consists  primarily  in 
the  mating  of  good  individuals.  In  general  the  best  in- 
dividuals of  the  breed  should  be  used  for  breeding  pur- 
poses, and  the  more  closely  they  are  related  the  better 
they  should  be  selected  because  the  more  likely  they  are 
to  combine  and  transmit  their  characteristics  to  the  off- 
spring. If  a  sire  and  dam  both  have  weak  points  in  com- 
mon, these  will  be  combined  and  transmitted  to  the  off- 
spring. If  they  have  strong  points  in  common,  they  will 
be  transmitted  likewise. 

GRADING. 

The  method  of  grading  as  a  form  of  breeding  consists 
in  mating  animals  one  of  which  is  pure  bred  and  the  other 
a  scrub,  grade,  or  cross  bred  animal.  The  sire  usually 
is  the  pure  bred.  The  dam  may  be  of  any  breeding  other 
than  pure  bred.  Thu-s  if  a  man  starts  with  a  herd  of  scrub 


METHODS  OF  BREEDING  105 

sows  and  uses  a  pure  bred  sire,  he  has  grade  pigs.  If 
he  uses  these  pigs  for  several  generations,  each  time 
using  a  pure  bred  sire,  he  has  pigs  that  are  called  high 
grades.  For  the  production  of  pork  hogs  a  high  grade  is 
almost,  perhaps  practically,  as  good  as  a  pure  bred.  Fur- 
thermore it  is  true  that  a  good  grade  properly  selected 
and  well  bred  is  better  than  a  poor  pure  bred. 

CROSS  BREEDING. 

Cross  breeding  consists  in  mating  pure  bred  animals 
that  are  of  different  breeds.  This  form  of  breeding  as 
practiced  for  the  production  of  market  hogs  is  advocated 
by  many  as  the  best  form  of  breeding,  which  however 
cannot  be  substantiated  by  evidence  or  by  a  thorough 
study  of  the  practice.  Cross  breeding,  as  generally  prac- 
ticed, has  nothing  in  its  favor  and  everything  to  be  lost, 
while  pure  breeding  or  grading  has  everything  in  its  favor 
to  be  gained  and  nothing  to  be  lost.  The  cross  bred  indi- 
vidual may  be  as  good  as  the  pure  bred  or  the  grade, 
but  he  is  no  better,  and  where  the  pure  bred  or  grade 
may  be  steadily  improved  year  after  year,  the  cross  bred 
cannot  be  improved  and  individuals  produced  by  such* 
practice  may  even  deteriorate  from  one  year  to  the  next. 

As  an  example  it  may  be  assumed  that  a  breeder 
through  ignorance,  negligence,  or  otherwise,  may  fail  to 
get  good  results  from  the  practice  of  either  pure  breeding 
or  grading.  He  may  change  his  policy  and  adopt  cross 
breeding,  using  the  sows  that  he  has  in  his  herd  and  mat- 
ing them  with  a  sire  of  another  breed.  The  pigs  that  will 
be  produced  from  such  mating  are  cross  bred.  It  is  a 
well  known  fact  that  these  pigs  cannot  be  used  further 
in  the  process  of  breeding  because  if  cross  breeding  is 
carried  further  than  the  first  generation  the  offspring 


106  SWINE 

deteriorates  very  rapidly.  Pigs  of  this  character  may  be 
mated  with  pure  bred  sires  that  are  not  related  to  them, 
but  this  then  is  not  cross  breeding,  but  grading.  In  order 
to  continue  the  process  of  cross  breeding,  the  breeder 
will  use  his  original  herd  of  sows  as  well  as  the  original 
sire  and  produce  pigs  year  after  year,  selling  the  entire 
offspring.  Such  a  man  cannot  be  called  a  breeder  in  the 
true  sense  of  the  word,  but  only  a  multiplier  of  swine. 
As  soon  as  the  brood  sows  become  old  enough  to  be  use- 
less, they  must  be  replaced  and  in  order  to  do  this  it  will 
be  necessary  either  to  keep  a  few  pure  bred  animals  on 
hand  and  breed  pure  bred  sows,  or  else  go  to  a  breeder 
of  pure  bred  swine  and  buy  the  necessary  animals  for  his 
breeding  herd.  In  case  such  a  man  attempts  to  breed 
his  own  animals  for  his  breeding  herd  that  are  to  be 
used  in  cross  breeding  operations,  he  will  not  breed  pure 
bred  animals  on  a  very  large  scale,  but  only  enough  to 
supply  the  necessary  breeding  stock.  In  such  a  case  he 
has  no  opportunity  at  all  for  selection;  he  will  have  to 
keep  the  entire  number  of  individuals  produced.  In  case 
he  supplements  his  breeding  herd  with  animals  purchased 
from  a  breeder  of  pure  bred  hogs,  he  will  not  get  the 
best  individuals  because  he  cannot  afford  to  pay  the 
price  at  which  these  sell.  He  will  have  to  take  second 
rate  individuals  and  possibly  even  poor  individuals 
which  should  be  classed  as  pedigreed  scrubs.  These,  in 
transmitting  their  own  characteristics,  will  produce  ani- 
mals that  are  not  good  individuals. 

Thus  the  man  who  practices  cross  breeding  loses  the 
opportunity  of  selection,  hence  the  possibility  of  improv- 
ing his  herd,  because  he  must  use  in  his  breeding  herd 
inferior  breeding  animals.  He  cannot  hope  to  purchase 
as  good  stock  as  the  man  uses  who  breeds  either  pure  or 


METHODS  OF  BREEDING  107 

practices  grading  in  his  herd  because  such  animals  usu- 
ally are  not  for  sale,  and  if  they  were  he  might  not  be 
financially  able  to  purchase  them.  The  only  advantage 
that  can  be  cited  in  favor  of  cross  breeding  is  that  the 
pigs  from  such  breeding  are  not  likely  to  be  inbred. 
Hence  they  usually  are  fairly  good  individuals  and,  as 
already  said,  may  be  as  good  as  pure  bred  animals.  Of 
course  a  good  cross  bred  pig  is  better  than  a  poor  pure 
bred  pig  or  a  poor  grade.  To  illustrate  this,  as  well  as 
breeding  in  general,  Cut  15  is  presented. 

SWINE  BREEDING. 

The  cut  on  page  108  is  not  made  from  any  experimental 
data,  or  from  any  records  whatever,  but  is  simply  an  off- 
hand drawing  evolved  in  the  mind  of  the  writer  to  illus- 
trate different  degrees  of  breeding.  The  vertical  dimen- 
sions of  the  diamond-shaped  figures  represent  de- 
grees of  variation  in  a  breed,  or  in  a  herd,  and 
the  distance  of  these  above  the  base  line  the  degree  of 
improvement.  The  dots  within  the  figure  represent  the 
individual  pigs,  as  for  instance  the  crop  of  pigs  that  is 
produced  in  one  season  or  the  pigs  of  a  breed.  The  hori- 
zontal line  through  the  diamond-shaped  figure  is  to  rep- 
resent the  average  of  the  herd  or  of  the  breed.  The  dots 
at  the  upper  side  of  the  axis  of  the  diamond  are  to  repre- 
sent the  pigs  that  are  better  than  the  average,  while  the 
ones  below  the  axis  represent  those  that  are  poorer  than 
the  average. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  greatest  number  of  the  pigs  are 
similar  in  characteristics  to  the  average  of  the  breed  or 
herd,  that  those  which  are  either  better  or  poorer  become 
fewer  in  number  as  the  distance  from  the  center  or  aver- 
age is  increased.  As  will  be  seen,  there  are  a  compara- 


108 


SWINE 


CS 


CM 


ft.5 


o> 

*0 

u 
O 


X) 


eg 


2  bJO 


METHODS   OF  BREEDING  109 

tively  small  number  of  either  outstanding  good  individ- 
uals or  outstanding  poor  individuals.  These  are  repre- 
sented by  the  dots  in  the  upper  and  lower  points  of  the 
diamond,  respectively. 

Figure  No.  1  in  the  cut  represents  the  wild  hog  in  its 
native  state.  It  occupies  the  position  on  the  base  line, 
or  the  starting  point  from  which  improvement  in  the 
several  breeds  was  made. 

Figure  2  represents  the  razor-back,  or  the  hog  that  was 
once  domesticated  and  then  allowed  to  revert  toward  its 
original  state,  such  as  are  found  in  the  forests  of  the 
southern  states  of  this  country. 

As  represented  the  razor-back  is  a  hog  of  higher  grade 
than  the  wild  boar.  The  average  razor-back  is  practi- 
cally equal  to  the  best  individuals  of  the  wild  hog,  while 
the  poorest  razor-back  is  somewhat  inferior  to  the  aver- 
age wild  hog. 

Figure  3  is  supposed  to  represent  the  scrub.  This 
shows  a  considerably  wider  degree  of  variation  than  the 
razor-back.  The  best  scrub  is  very  much  better  than 
the  best  razor-back,  and  the  average  scrub  even  is  a 
little  better  than  the  best  razor-back,  while  the  poorest 
scrub,  as  represented  by  the  lower  part  of  this  diamond, 
is  almost  as  good  as  the  average  razor-back. 

Figure  4  represents  the  grade  hog.  This  again  shows 
a  wider  degree  of  variation  and  shows  that  the  best 
grade  is  very  much  better  than  the  best  scrub.  The 
average  grade  is  also  considerably  better  than  the  aver- 
age scrub,  while  the  poorest  grade  is  a  little  better  than 
the  poorest  scrub. 

Figure  5  shows  the  pure  bred  hog.  This  as  will  be 
seen  shows  the  widest  degree  of  variation,  the  best  pure 
bred  being  very  much  better  than  the  best  grade,  while 
the  poorest  pure  bred  is  not  very  much  better  than  the 


110  SWINE 

poorest  grade.  This  probably  is  true  because  pure  bred 
animals  with  the  widest  possible  variation  are  bred.  The 
impression  seems  to  prevail  in  the  minds  of  many  breed- 
ers that  a  hog  with  a  pedigree,  or  the  pure  bred  hog,  must 
necessarily  be  a  good  individual.  Many  breeders  make 
a  practice  of  selling  for  breeding  purposes  all  the  pure 
bred  hogs  produced  in  the  herd.  Consequently  the  poor- 
est pure  bred  individuals  are  used  for  breeding  purposes. 
This  is  not  true  for  any  other  class  of  breeding.  The 
man  who  practices  grading,  or  breeds  from  scrubs,  makes 
a  practice  of  selecting  only  the  best  individuals.  This 
is  also  true  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  with  cross  bred 
hogs. 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  if  success  is  to  be  attained  with 
pure  bred  hogs,  they  must  be  selected  just  as  closely  as 
hogs  with  no  pedigree,  or  of  any  other  form  of  breeding. 
If  good  results  are  to  be  obtained,  outstanding  individ- 
uals must  be  taken  to  use  in  the  breeding  herd.  The 
best  individuals,  those  that  may  be  considered  really  out- 
standing, or  the  ones  that  bring  about  improvement  in 
the  breed,  appear  only  occasionally  and  sometimes  very 
rarely,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  diamond-shaped  figure 
where  the  number  of  individuals  in  the  upper  point  are 
very  few  as  compared  to  the  total  number  produced. 

It  will  be  seen  by  comparing  figures  5  and  4,  which 
represent  pure  bred  and  grade  respectively,  that  a  man 
rnay  succeed  better  with  the  best  grade  than  with  the 
average  pure  bred.  This  of  course  will  apply  only  to 
the  production  of  market  hogs.  The  poorest  pure  bred 
individuals  are  very  much  poorer  as  individuals  than  the 
average  grade. 

Figure  6  in  the  same  cut  represents  the  cross  bred  hog 
that  is  used  for  market  purposes.  This  does  not  show 


METHODS  OF  BREEDING  111 

so  wide  a  degree  of  variation  as  the  pure  bred,  which  has 
already  been  explained,  namely,  that  cross  bred  hogs 
are  more  carefully  selected  for  breeding  purposes.  The 
best  cross  bred  is  equal  in  value  for  pork  production  to 
the  best  pure  bred,  but  is  no  better.  The  average  cross 
bred  hog  appears  often  to  be  a  little  better  than  the  aver- 
age pure  bred.  This  is  true  only  on  account  of  selection. 
The  average  pure  bred  as  a  whole,  where  the  poorest  in- 
dividuals are  used  for  breeding  purposes,  is  not  as  good 
as  the  average  cross  bred  where  the  animals  are  more 
closely  culled.  The  poorest  cross  bred  pig,  however, 
even  when  used  for  market  purposes,  is  not  much  if  any 
better  than  the  poorest  pure  bred. 

The  last  figure  of  the  cut,  No.  7,  is  supposed  to  repre- 
sent the  cross  bred  hog  when  used  for  breeding  purposes. 
As  will  be  seen  this  is  no  better  than  the  scrub.  When 
cross  breeding  is  carried  further  than  the  first  generation, 
the  individuals  themselves  and  the  results  that  may  be 
obtained  from  them  are  no  better  than  hogs  that  are 
scrubs. 

To  gain  an  idea  of  the  results  that  may  be  obtained 
through  a  series  of  years,  figures  numbered  6  and  7  must 
be  considered  together  in  comparison  with  figures  1  to 
5.  As  previously  stated,  the  practice  of  selection  in  grades 
or  pure  breds  may  be  followed  year  by  year,  while 
this  opportunity  is  entirely  lacking  in  cross  breeding 
operations.  For  instance,  suppose  a  man  is  producing 
a  crop  of  one  hundred  pigs  either  annually  or  semi-annu- 
ally.  One  half  of  these,  or  fifty,  will  be  female  and  the 
remainder  males.  Of  these  fifty  sows  a  few  will  appear 
that  belong  in  the  upper  part  of  the  diamond-shaped 
figure.  Possibly  he  may  have  one  that  belongs  in  the 
extreme  upper  point,  but  such  a  one  will  appear  only 


112  SWINP] 

occasionally,  perhaps  not  more  than  a  few  times  in  a 
life  time.  Selecting  this  individual  whenever  it  appears, 
and  as  many  more  as  may  be  necessary  for  a  breeding 
herd  that  are  the  best  in  the  crop,  and  mating  these  with 
a  sire  that  has  been  equally  well  selected  either  from  the 
same  herd  or  from  a  herd  of  some  other  breeder,  it  can 
easily  be  seen  that  the  average  of  the  herd  the  following 
year  will  be  distinctly  better  than  the  starting  point,  or 
the  average  of  the  first  year.  Thus  the  next  or  second 
crop  of  pigs  will  be  better.  While  the  same  degree  of 
variation  will  exist  in  this  crop,  the  average  of  the  pigs 
will  be  higher.  This  may  be  illustrated  by  going  from 
the  wild  hog  to  the  razor-back.  The  following  year  an- 
other step  may  be  taken  in  advance  by  going  from  the 
razor-back  to  the  scrub,  and  this  method  of  improvement 
may  be  continued  from  year  to  year,  going  from  the  scrub 
tc  the  grade,  and  from  the  grade  to  the  pure  bred.  Im- 
provement may  be  made  indefinitely.  This  improvement 
may  be  made  in  any  one,  or  in  all,  of  the  various  points, 
such  as  producing  individuals  of  prolificacy,  greater 
vitality,  and  greater  thriftiness;  sows  that  produce 
more  milk,  sows  that  are  better  mothers  and  will  raise 
a  larger  percentage  of  their  litter,  individuals  that  have 
the  ability  to  add  more  fat,  as  well  as  those  that  have 
the  ability  to  digest  and  assimilate  more  feed  and  produce 
greater  and  cheaper  gains. 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  opportunities  of  the  breed- 
er who  practices  either  grading  or  pure  breeding  are  un- 
limited, while  the  man  who  practices  cross  breeding  has 
no  opportunities  for  improvement  whatever.  The  only 
excuse  for  the  latter  method  of  swine  breeding  is  that 
there  is  no  possibility  of  the  hogs  being  inbred,  and  this 
is  somewhat  of  a  reflection  upon  the  intelligence  of  the 


METHODS  OP   BREEDING  113 

breeder.  For  a  man  who  is  in  the  business  of  swine 
breeding  would  not  like  to  admit  that  he  did  not  know 
enough  about  his  animals  to  know  whether  or  not  they 
were  being  inbred.  Nevertheless,  a  man  who  practices 
pure  breeding  or  grading  and  does  not  make  a  thorough 
study  of  the  business  may  be  deceived.  He  may  buy 
year  after  year  pure  bred  sires  from  different  sections  of 
the  country  and  of  course  from  different  breeders.  But 
without  making  a  close  study  of  the  pedigrees,  it  may 
be  possible  for  him  to  buy,  unknowingly,  sires  during 
successive  years  that  are  very  closely  related,  which,  of 
course,  would  be  likely  to  produce  disastrous  results  in 
his  breeding  herd.  This  could  be  avoided  by  cross  breed- 
ing, but  also  equally  well  by  pure  breeding  and  grad- 
ing, if  the  breeder  understands  pedigrees,  and  by  the 
latter  method  he  could  improve  his  herd  while  by  the 
former  he  could  not. 


PART  II. 

Swine  Feeding-. 


116 


SWINE 


Ill 

II; 


o    o 


§  3 

ll»S! 


I! 


SE  = 


1 

";    c 


III 


CHAPTER  IX. 
WHAT  IS  A  HOG? 

This  to  the  casual  observer  seems  like  the  question  of  a 
simpleton,  but  nevertheless  it  has  a  great  deal  of  mean- 
ing. For,  in  order  to  be  able  to  feed  a  hog  properly,  a 
man  should  know  what  kinds  of  material  the  hog  is  made 
up  of,  and  also  the  amounts  of  the  various  kinds  of  ma- 
terial entering  into  the  construction  of  the  body. 

The  composition  of  a  hog,  or  the  structure  of  his  body, 
may  be  compared  to  a  brick  house.  Such  a  house,  for  in- 
stance, is  composed  of  brick,  mortar  and  lumber.  In  or- 
der to  have  the  house  constructed  most  economically, 
only  enough  of  the  various  kinds  of  material  should  be 
delivered  to  the  place  where  the  house  is  being  built  so 
that  the  entire  quantity  can  be  used  and  nothing  left 
over.  If  twice  as  many  bricks  were  hauled  to  the  ground 
as  could  be  used,  the  house  could  still  be  built  and  the  re- 
mainder be  hauled  away  and  considered  waste.  If  more 
lumber  were  bought  than  necessary,  the  excess  could  be 
used  for  fuel  which  would  be  wasteful.  If  more  mortar 
were  made  than  could  be  used  to  lay  the  brick,  it  would 
soon  become  hard  and  be  wasted. 

If  such  a  house  were  to  be  built,  a  layman  would  con- 
sider it  unwise  to  undertake  the  task  himself.  It  might  be 
possible  for  him  to  build  some  sort  of  a  structure,  but  if  it 
were  done  by  trained  masons  and  carpenters,  it  would  be 
infinitely  better. 

(in) 


118  SWINE 

The  making  of  a  hog  may  be  compared  to  the  building 
of  a  brick  house.  In  order  to  build  such  a  house  most 
economically  and  most  durably  it  must  contain  good  ma- 
terial and  the  proper  amount  of  the  various  materials 
that  enter  into  the  structure.  These  must  also  be  prop- 
erly used. 

Thus  in  the  making  of  the  body  of  a  hog,  if  the  best 
results  are  to  be  obtained,  the  proper  kinds  of  materials 
must  be  brought  into  the  structure,  as  well  as  the  proper 
amounts  of  the  various  kinds  of  these  which  must'  be 
handled  by  the  mechanism  of  the  animal  in  the  best  possi- 
ble working  condition.  It  is  true  that  the  animal  can  sub- 
stitute to  some  extent  and  use  carbohydrate  in  place  of 
ether  extract ;  fat  when  obtained  direct  from  the  feed  to  a 
slight  degree  in  place  of  carbohydrate;  and  can  use  pro- 
tein to  some  extent  in  place  of  carbohydrate  or  fat  for 
energy  and  heat  production.  He  cannot,  however,  substi- 
tute anything  for  the  protein  that  is  used  for  the  regular 
protein  metabolism,  neither  for  the  water  or  the  mineral 
matter  that  is  necessary  for  the  proper  making  of  the 
animal  body.  Thus  if  a  man  who  knows  little  or  nothing 
about  feeds,  about  apimals.  and  about  feeding,  can  feed 
hogs  and  obtain  a  fair  degree  of  success  how  much  greater 
ought  not  such  success  to  be  if  the  man  were  properly 
trained  in  these  respects  ?  The  principal  constituent  parts 
of  the  body  of  a  hog  are  water,  protein,  fat,  and  ash  or 
mineral  matter. 

WATER. 

About  one-half  of  the  live  weight  of  the  hog  is  water. 
The  amount  of  water,  however,  in  the  carcass  depends 
considerably  on  the  condition  of  the  animal.  A  thrifty, 
growing  hog  that  is  not  very  fat  will  contain  proportion- 


WHAT  IS  A  HOG?  119 

ately  more  water  than  a  hog  that  is  very  fat  or  in  prime 
condition  for  market.  Generally  speaking,  hogs  with  this 
degree  of  variation  will  contain  from  42  to  58  per  cent 
of  water.  In  order  to  have  a  hog  develop  to  the  best  pos- 
sible advantage,  he  must  have  sufficient  water  to  supply 
this  amount,  and  besides  he  must  also  have  water  for  the 
general  working  of  his  internal  mechanism.  The  latter  is 
of  the  greater  importance.  Water  is  very  essential  in  the 
excretion  of  waste  products,  such  as  the  waste  nitrogen 
resulting  from  the  protein  metabolism  which  is  excreted 
as  a  part  of  the  urine.  As  to  the  distribution  of  water  in 
the  body,  it  is  found  everywhere,  but  more  extensively 
in  the  softer  tissues;  the  hard  tissues  such  as  the  bone 
containing  a  relatively  smaller  quantity. 

PROTEIN. 

The  vital  or  working  parts  of  an  animal  body  are  com- 
posed principally  of  protein.  Thus  it  is  seen  that  as  long 
as  an  animal  lives  and  works  it  needs  protein  not  only  to 
build  up  new  tissue  during  the  growing  period,  but  also 
to  maintain  the  protein  metabolism*  during  idleness  and 
during  periods  of  work.  Peculiarly  as  long  as  the  animal 
lives  this  part  of  his  mechanism  is  working  all  the  time, 
and  as  far  as  experimental  data  show,  he  needs  as  much 
protein  when  he  is  at  rest  as  when  he  is  at  work,  show- 
ing that  the  mechanical  work  an  animal  does  is  done  at 
the  expense  of  nutrients  other  than  protein,  consequently 
carbohydrate  and  fat.  Since  the  latter  nutrient  is  found 
in  feed  stuffs  only  in  limited  quantities,  and  since  also 
his  internal  mechanism  can  handle  only  a  limited  quan- 

*Metabolism  means  the  process  involved  in  the  changes  that 
food  substances  undergo  in  the  animal  body  after  they  are  digested 
and  taken  into  the  system.  This  is  similar  in  part  to  what  is 
meant  by  assimilation. 


120  SWINE 

tity  of  this,  when  taken  in  as  a  feed  from  external  sources, 
the  nutrient  carbohydrate  is  the  principal  source  of 
energy. 

The  amount  of  protein  in  the  carcass  of  a  hog  varies 
somewhat  with  the  condition  of  the  animal,  but  not  to  the 
same  extent  as  the  amount  of  water  present.  As  the  hog 
grows,  especially  during  the  growing  period  as  contrasted 
with  the  fattening  period,  he  is,  under  normal  conditions, 
always  adding  protein  to  his  body.  At  the  same  time 
he  is  adding  other  tissues,  particularly  fat.  But  during 
the  fattening  period  he  will  add  relatively  more  fat,  and 
consequently  the  fatter  the  hog  the  smaller  is  the  relative 
amount  of  protein  contained  in  the  same. 

In  general  the  carcass  of  a  hog  contains  from  12  to  15 
per  cent  of  protein.  The  principal  protein  tissues  are 
the  lean  meat  or  muscle  tissues.  Besides  this,  however, 
protein  is  quite  widely  distributed  throughout  the  body, 
such  as  in  the  fluids  of  the  body,  the  cells  which  contain 
the  fat,  the  bones,  and  the  hide,  hair  and  horns.  All  parts 
of  the  body,  then,  contain  protein,  but  the  muscle  or 
the  lean  meat  is  made  up  primarily  of  protein. 

In  order  to  allow  a  pig  to  build  up  the  protein  part  of 
his  body  he  must  have  protein  as  a  food.  Protein 
metabolism  cannot  be  supplied  by  any  other  food 
nutrient.  This  is  one  of  the  laws  of  nature ;  consequently 
a  hog  may  be  allowed  to  starve  to  death  with  a  full 
stomach.  That  is,  if  he  were  given  all  the  carbohydrate, 
all  the  fat,  all  the  water,  and  all  the  ash  or  mineral  mat- 
ter that  he  could  eat,  he  would  still  starve  to  death  un- 
less he  had  protein  to  supply  the  protein  metabolism  or 
the  part  of  his  mechanism  that  has  to  do  with  the  con- 
struction and  maintenance  of  lean  meat  or  protein  tissues. 
To  expect  a  hog  to  live  and  thrive  without  protein  would 


WHAT   IS  A  HOG?  121 

be  comparable  to  trying  to  build  a  brick  house  without 
mortar. 

FAT 

The  fat  or  lard  hog  usually  is  considered  as  being  pri- 
marily adapted  to  the  production  of  fat.  A  great  many 
times,  however,  he  has  too  much  fat  for  his  own  good  as 
well  as  for  the  demands  of  the  market.  The  amount  of 
fat  contained  in  the  carcass  of  a  hog  will  vary  greatly  in 
accordance  with  the  condition  in  which  the  hog  is  found. 
This  ranges  approximately  from  24  to  42  per  cent.  Thus 
it  is  seen  that  a  hog  in  normal  flesh,  or  in  growing  condi- 
tion, is  made  up  of  about  one-fourth  fat  and  three-fourths 
of  other  material.  When  in  very  high  condition,  or  ready 
for  market,  he  will  be  made  up  of  about  two-fifths  fat. 

The  purpose  of  the  fat  in  the  living  animal  body 
is  two-fold :  First  and  primarily,  it  is  the  storehouse 
or  means  of  storage  of  fuel,  namely,  the  fat.  Thus  the 
animal  provides  itself  for  possible  emergencies.  If  it 
is  compelled  to  go  without  food  for  days  or  even  a  few 
weeks,  it  has  a  readily  available  food  supply.  If  the  time 
is  too  long  between  meals,  it  will  also  draw  upon  the 
store  of  fat.  This,  however,  cannot  supply  the  demands 
for  protein,  but  only  the  carbohydrate  and  the  fat  metab- 
olism. The  protein  metabolism  must  be  supplied  from 
the  protein  of  the  ration  or  from  the  protein  tissues  of  the 
body.  Second,  some  fat  gives  the  animal  better  form  and 
protection  from  bumps  and  cold. 

ASH  OR  MINERAL  MATTER. 

This  constituent  of  the  hog  is  found  chiefly  in  the  bones. 
However,  considerable  ash  or  mineral  matter  is  found  in 
other  parts  of  his  body,  such  as  in  the  blood,  and  in  his 
digestive  processes  in  general,  as  well  as  in  the  cells 


122  SWINE 

throughout  the  body.  Approximately  two  to  three  per 
cent  of  the  live  weight  of  the  hog  is  composed  of  this  kind 
of  material.  The  ash  or  mineral  matter  in  general  of  any 
vegetable  material  is  that  which  is  left  after  it  is  burned 
as,  for  instance,  the  ashes  taken  from  a  wood  stove. 
Bones  are  made  up  principally  of  two  kinds  of  material, 
namely,  ash  or  mineral  matter  and  protein.  To  demon- 
strate to  one's  own  satisfaction  the  amount  of  these  two 
substances  present,  the  bone  may  be  put  into  a  fire  and 
thoroughly  burned.  This  will  take  out  the  vegetable  mat- 
ter, such  as  the  protein  and  leave  the  mineral  matter. 
The  bone  after  being  taken  from  the  fire  will  be  brittle, 
light  and  porous,  which  is  the  mineral  matter  of  the  bone. 
If  the  mineral  matter  is  to  be  taken  out  and  the  protein 
left,  the  bone  should  be  placed  in  some  acid  for  a  time 
which  will  dissolve  the  ash  and  leave  the  protein.  The 
bone  in  this  condition  will  be  soft  and  pliable.  There  are 
various  kinds  of  mineral  substances  in  the  general  ash  of 
the  body,  all  of  which  must  be  supplied  for  the  proper 
development  of  the  animal. 


CHAPTER  X. 
BUILDING  MATERIAL. 

In  order  to  furnish  the  hog  with  the  desired  material 
for  the  construction  of  his  body,  it  must  be  known  where 
and  in  what  form  these  are  to  be  obtained. 

FOOD  NUTRIENTS. 

Since  nutrients  rather  than  feeds  is  the  basis  of  con- 
sideration, and  is  somewhat  of  a  departure  and  more  or 
less  unfamiliar,  it  is  deemed  advisable  to  discuss  this  mat- 
ter in  detail  at  this  point. 

Nutrients  are  the  ingredients  or  compounds  of  a  feed 
or  of  feeds  such  as  may  be  used  by  the  animal,  as,  for  in- 
stance, protein,  carbohydrate  and  ether  extract  or  fat. 
It  should  be  remembered  that  a  feed  must  be  eaten  and 
digested  so  as  to  separate  it  into  its  various  constituent 
parts,  the  nutrients,  before  they  can  be  used.  Digestible 
nutrients  are  those  portions  of  the  nutrients  that  are  ab- 
sorbed from  the  alimentary  tract  and  not  passed  out  in 
the  feces. 

Coefficients  of  Digestibility. — By  coefficient  of  digesti- 
bility is  meant  the  per  cent  of  a  nutrient  that  is  digested. 
The  total  quantity  eaten  minus  that  appearing  in  the 
feces  divided  by  the  total  quantity,  gives  the  coefficient 
of  digestibility  or  the  per  cent  digested.  According  to  the 
above  definition,  the  undigested  portion  of  feed  stuffs  is 
all  found  in  the  feces;  hence  in  determining  the  coeffi- 
cients of  digestibility  the  feces  only  and  not  the  urine 

(123) 


124  SWINE 

need  to  be  considered.  This  may  be  collected  in  various 
ways  as  follows: 

By  keeping  the  pig  in  a  small  pen  which  has  a  smooth 
floor  where  the  droppings  can  be  gathered  without  much 
waste.  The  objections  to  this  method  are  that  if  the  at- 
tendant is  not  present  at  all  times  the  pig  may  get  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  droppings  on  his  feet  and  body 
and  more  or  less  of  it  may  be  lost.  Also  the  solid  matter 
may  become  mixed  with  the  urine  which  would  detract 
somewhat  from  the  results  obtained. 

Pigs  may  be  kept  in  small  comfortable  pens  and  have 
bags  attached  to  them  to  catch  the  droppings  as  they 
are  voided.  In  such  cases  barrows  should  be  used  in  or- 
der that  the  urine  will  not  interfere.  This  bag  if  properly 
arranged  affords  an  opportunity  to  save  practically  all  the 
feces  that  are  voided.  However,  a  pig  that  is  put  into 
such  a  harness  is  more  or  less  under  abnormal  conditions 
and  cannot  be  expected  to  do  normal  work,  at  least  for  a 
considerable  length  of  time  during  which  he  is  becoming 
accustomed  to  this  apparatus. 

A  pig  may  also  be  kept  in  a  crate  which  is  just  large 
enough  for  him  to  stand  up  or  lie  down  in  conveniently. 
In  such  a  case  barrows  are  also  used  and  the  crate  is  so 
arranged  that  the  urine  runs  forward  at  least  to  the  center 
of  the  crate.  The  solid  excrement  falls  at  the  rear  end 
and  may  be  gathered  without  much  difficulty.  The  ob- 
jection to  this  is  that  the  pig  must  necessarily  be  confined 
to  a  very  small  place,  which  again  is  not  normal,  or  is 
not  the  same  condition  that  is  usually  afforded  to  pigs  in 
the  process  of  pork  production.  The  results  obtained  in 
such  close  confinement,  therefore,  cannot  be  said  to  apply 
directly  to  conditions  that  are  more  nearly  in  accordance 
with  nature. 


BUILDING  MATERIAL,  125 

One  important  consideration  in  connection  with  deter- 
mining coefficients  of  digestibility  is  the  manner  in  which 
the  different  feeds  are  used  for  which  the  coefficients  are 
to  be  determined.  This  is  usually  done  by  either  feeding 
a  particular  feed  separately  or  by  feeding  several  feeds 
in  combination.  If  the  feeds  are  fed  separately,  then  the 
coefficients  of  digestibility  for  the  various  nutrients  of 
the  feed  are  as  already  stated,  namely,  the  total  quantity 
of  dry  matter  passed  out  in  the  feces  is  to  be  subtracted 
from  the  total  quantity  eaten.  This  remainder  divided 
by  the  total  quantity  eaten  is  the  per  cent  digested,  or  the 
coefficient  of  digestibility.  This  can  be  done  with  a  num- 
ber of  feeds,  such  as  corn  and  other  ordinary  grains,  but 
it  cannot  be  done  in  a  case  where  roughages  or  where 
nitrogenous  concentrates  are  fed.  Roughages  are  not 
sufficiently  palatable  to  be  used  as  a- single  feed.  Nitrog- 
enous concentrates  are  so  rich  in  protein  and  contain  so 
Little  carbohydrate  that  a  pig  cannot  be  fed  on  such  a 
feed  alone.  In  order  to  get  the  coefficients  of  digestibility 
then  for  feeds  like  these,  it  is  necessary  to  feed  them  in 
combination  with  other  feeds. 

In  such  cases  corn,  or  some  other  feed  that  can  be  used 
singly,  is  fed  to  the  pig  first  as  a  single  feed  and  the  co- 
efficients of  digestibility  are  determined  for  it.  The  corn, 
or  whatever  other  feed  may  be  used  in  such  a  process,  is 
called  the  basal  ration.  Following  this  a  feed  that  can- 
not be  fed  alone  as,  for  instance,  soy-beans,  is  fed  in  con- 
nection with  the  corn.  The  coefficients  of  digestibility 
for  soy-beans  are  then  calculated.  The  coefficients  that 
were  obtained  when  corn  alone  was  used  are  applied  to 
the  corn  part  of  the  combined  ration  which  determines 
what  part  of  the  feces  of  this  ration  should  be  accredited 
to  the  soy-beans.  This  then  is  subtracted  from  the  total 


126  SWINE 

amount  of  soy-beans  in  the  ration,  and  the  difference  di- 
vided by  the  total  amount  fed,  which  is  supposed  to  give 
the  coefficient  of  digestibility  for  soy-beans.  While  in 
some  cases  this  may  be  accurate,  it  is  usually  inaccurate. 

Recent  experiments  by  the  writer  have  shown  that 
combinations  of  feeds  in  general  are  digested  much  more 
thoroughly  than  single  feeds,  the  difference  being  so  great 
that  the  coefficients  of  digestibility  for  some  of  the 
nutrients  of  nitrogenous  concentrates  is  far  greater  than 
100  per  cent,  indicating  that  the  supplemental  feed  exer- 
cises a  favorable  influence  upon  the  extent  to  which  the 
basal  ration  is  digested.  With  this  in  view,  it  is  obvious 
that  the  coefficients  of  digestibility  for  the  nutrients  of 
the  feeds  that  are  determined  by  calculation  are  not  ac- 
curate; furthermore,  where  the  coefficients  for  a  single 
feed  have  been  determined  directly,  they  are  not  as  high 
as  when  used  in  combination  with  other  feeds. 

By  using  several  different  kinds  of  concentrated  feeds 
in  various  proportions  it  was  shown  that  the  coefficient 
of  digestibility  for  carbohydrate  is  practically  constant, 
and  that  a  pig  digests  90  per  cent  of  this  nutrient.  The 
coefficients  for  the  other  nutrients  vary  considerably. 
Crude  protein  ranges  from  67  to  85  per  cent  and  ether  ex- 
tract from  60  to  90  per  cent.  Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  di- 
gestible nutrients  given  in  the  succeeding  tables,  since 
they  are  made  up  from  average  coefficients  of  digesti- 
bility, may  not  be  absolutely  accurate,  but  they  are  the 
best  available.  Furthermore,  as  determined  by  the  writer, 
these  are  much  more  nearly  accurate  than  many  other 
conditions  of  a  practical  nature  that  determine  results  in 
swine  feeding. 

Protein. — Protein  is  the  general  name  for  the  nitrog- 
enous compounds  that  are  used  by  the  animal  body  for 


BUILDING   MATERIAL  127 

the  production  of  the  lean  meat  or  muscle  tissue,  and,  to 
a  lesser  extent,  bone  tissue  of  the  body.  Bones,  as  is  well 
known,  are  made  up  largely  of  mineral  matter.  Feeds 
that  contain  a  considerable  quantity  of  protein  are  called 
nitrogenous  feeds  because  nitrogen  is  the  distinguishing 
element  of  protein.  It  must  be  remembered,  however, 
that  nitrogenous  feeds  in  general  also  contain  more  or 
less  of  the  other  nutrients. 

For  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  term  protein,  a 
further  exemplification  of  the  above  definition  is  neces- 
sary. Total  nitrogen  compounds  (Nx6.25)  are  called 
crude  protein.  This  includes  all  the  nitrogen  compounds 
of  feeds.  Sometimes  they  are  simply  called  protein  for  the 
sake  of  brevity.  True  protein,  or  what  is  correctly  meant 
when  the  word  protein  is  used  alone,  includes  only  those 
nitrogenous  compounds  that  can  be  used  for  the  con^ 
struction  of  the  lean  meat  or  muscle  tissue  of  the  body 
and  otherwise  to  supply  the  general  protein  metabolism. 
Subtracting  the  true  protein,  or  protein  from  the  crude 
protein,  there  is  left  what  is  called  non-protein.  This  is 
also  a  nitrogenous  substance,  but  cannot  be  used  by  the 
animal  body  to  supply  protein  metabolism  or  the  purposes 
for  which  true  protein  is  used.  Protein  is  present  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent  in  almost  all  feeds,  but  is  found 
most  abundantly  in  nitrogenous  feeds. 

Carbohydrate. — Carbohydrate  nutrients  are  those  used 
by  the  animal  body  for  the  production  of  energy ;  second 
(during  cold  seasons  or  in  cold  climates),  for  the  produc- 
tion of  heat,  and  third,  for  the  production  of  fat.  This 
substance  is  found  in  most  feeds,  but  occurs  in  largest 
quantities  in  those  classified  as  carbonaceous.  Starches 
and  sugar  are  popularly  used  examples  of  carbohydrate 
as  discussed  in  stock  feeding. 


128  SWINE 

Fat  or  Ether  Extract. — The  nutrient  known  as  fat,  or 
ether  extract,  is  found  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  all 
feeds.  These  compounds  are  used  by  the  animal  body 
for  the  same  ultimate  purpose  as  the  carbohydrate  nu- 
trients. The  term  ether  extract  is  usually  used  instead 
of  fat  because  ether  is  used  in  extracting  the  fat  from  the 
feed  stuff  when  determining  how  much  it  contains.  The 
extract  when  thus  obtained  has  other  materials  in  it  such 
as  wax,  chlorophyll,  etc.,  and  is  not  pure  fat;  consequently 
is  called  ether  extract. 

Mineral  Matter. — The  mineral  nutrients  are  such  sub- 
stances as  common  salt,  lime,  potash,  the  phosphates,  etc, 
These  are  necessary  for  the  construction  of  bone  as  well 
as  for  the  proper  working  of  the  other  functions  of  the 
animal  body.  All  feeds  contain  some  mineral  matter; 
some  feeds  contain  a  considerable  quantity,  others  a  very 
small  quantity.  Different  soils  contain  varying  quanti- 
ties of  mineral  matter,  and  vegetation  grown  on  these 
soils  will  have  varying  quantities  of  mineral  matter  con- 
tained in  it  in  accordance  with  the  soil  upon  which  it 
grows.  Ground  water  also  contains  more  or  less  mineral 
matter  in  accordance  with  the  quantities  in  the  soil. 

DRY  FEEDS 

Feeds  in  general,  such  as  corn,  rye,  oats,  barley,  skim 
milk,  grass,  roots,  etc.,  are  usually  considered  as  the  pri- 
mary sources  of  the  necessary  building  material  for  the 
hog,  as  well  as  for  other  animals.  Some  feeds,  such  as 
corn,  rye,  barley,  etc.,  are  made  up  largely  of  carbohydrate 
material  and  are  called  carbonaceous  feeds.  Besides  con- 
taining carbohydrate  they  also  contain  some  of  the  other 
food  nutrients,  such  as  protein,  ether  extract  or  fat,  and 
mineral  matter;  also  some  water.  It  is  very  fortunate 


BUILDING  MATERIAL,  129 

that  all  feeds,  especially  corn,  contain  some  protein.  If 
this  were  not  true,  hogs  fed  on  corn  alone  would  die  on 
account  of  protein  starvation.  Other  feeds  contain  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  protein  material  and  are  classified 
as  nitrogenous  feeds.  Most  of  these  contain  other  nu- 
trients, such  as  carbohydrate,  ether  extract,  mineral 
matter  and  also  water. 

Since  protein  is  present  in  all  feeds,  there  is  not  much 
danger  of  a  pig  being  starved  to  death  when  he  is  given 
all  the  corn,  for  instance,  that  he  can  eat,  but  the  carbo- 
hydrate feeds  do  not  contain  sufficient  protein  to  allow 
the  pig  to  develop  as  he  should.  Consequently  in  order 
to  supplement  the  protein  found  in  the  corbohydrate 
feeds,  nitrogenous  feeds  are  resorted  to.  These  are  feeds 
such  as  skim  milk,  soy-beans,  cow-peas,  clover  and  al- 
falfa. The  latter  are  roughages  and  on  this  account  will 
riot  furnish  sufficient  protein  for  the  maximum  develop- 
ment of  the  hog  which  is  not  adapted  to  eating  very  large 
quantities  of  feeds'  of  this  class. 

CLASSIFICATION  AND  COMPOSITION  OF 
FEEDS. 

There  are  two  general  classes  of  feeds,  namely,  con- 
centrates and  roughages.  Concentrates  are  feeds  that  con- 
tain a  comparatively  large  per  cent  of  digestible  nutrients 
and  a  comparatively  small  per  cent  of  undigestible  ma- 
terial, or,  in  other  words,  are  the  feeds  that  are  not  bulky. 
Roughages  or  bulky  feeds  are  the  opposite  of  concen- 
trates; those  containing  relatively  large  proportions  of 
undigestible  material.  Aside  from  this,  feeds  are  classi- 
fied according  to  the  amounts  of  the  various  digestible  nu- 
trients they  contain;  those  that  are  composed  largely  of 
carbohydrate  material  are  called  carbonaceous  feeds,  and 


130 


SWINE 


those  that  contain  considerably  more  protein  than  is 
found  in  carbonaceous  feeds  are  called  nitrogenous  feeds. 
They  are  called  nitrogenous  because  nitrogen  is  the  prin- 
cipal distinguishing  element  of  protein  as  compared  to 
the  composition  of  carbohydrate.  The  latter  is  composed 
of  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  while  the  former  also 
contains  nitrogen  and  sometimes  sulphur.  Many  nitrog- 
enous feeds  contain  much  more  carbohydrate  than  pro- 
tein. 

CARBONACEOUS  CONCENTRATES— DRY  FEEDS. 


Digestible  Nutrients  Per  100  Ibs. 

Water 

Crude 
protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Ether 
extract 

Mineral 
matter 

Corn    

13.0 
11.6 
10.9 
10.5 
11.0 
9.3 
12.4 
8.1 
11.1 

7.0 
8.1 
8.3 
8.9 
8.4 
7.8 
-     4.8 
9.0 
7.5 

66.0 
69.7 
64.8 
69.2 
48.3 
57.1 
72.2 
61.2 
55.2 

3.0 
1.3 
1.6 
1.7 
4.2 
2.7 
.3 
6.2 
6.8 

1.4 
1.9 
2.6 
1.8 
3.0 
1.5 
.4 
1.3 
2.5 

Rve 

Barley    . 

Wheat    

Oats 

Rice    it. 

Germmeal    

Hominy  chops   

GREEN  FEEDS.' 


Potatoes  

78.9 

.5 

16.4 

.1 

1.0 

Artichokes   .    „ 

79.5 

2  0 

16.8 

.2 

1  0 

Sugar  beets    

86.5 

1.1 

10.2 

.1 

.9 

90  9 

1 

5  7 

1 

1.1 

90  5 

.2 

6.5 

.1 

.8 

90  9 

1  0 

5  8 

.3 

.5 

*Under  certain  conditions  these  may  become  roughagei. 

A  few  of  the  most  common  feeds  are  given  in  the  ac- 
companying tables  which  were  also  simultaneously  pre- 


BUILDING  MATERIAL 


131 


pared  for  an  Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
publication.  The  digestible  nutrients  given  for  these  were 
obtained  from  various  sources;  some  from  the  analyses 
of  the  Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  some 
from  the  work  of  Armsby  of  Pennsylvania,  and  some  from 

NITROGENOUS    CONCENTRATES — DRY    FEEDS. 


Digestible  Nutrients  Per  100  Ibs. 

Soy   bean    (grain)    

Water. 

Crude 
protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Ether 
extract. 

Mineral 
matter. 

10.8 
10.5 
14.8 
7. 
10.7 
8.5 
9.2 
10.1 
8.2 
9.7 
12.0 
12.1 
11.8 
13.2 
11.1 

29.6 
18.0 
18.3 
48.0 
66.2 
52.3 
27.5 
29.3 
21.6 
13.5 
14.0 
11.4 
12.2 
22.0 
21.1 

22.3 
59.8 
54.2 

.3 

32.8 
38.7 
43.0 
61.3 
66.0 
54.5 
50.0 
33.4 
33.5 

14.4 
.6 
1.1 
12.0 
13.7 
2.5 
7.1 
2.9 
11.9 
2.0 
2.0 
3.4 
3.8 
5.4 
5.5 

4.7 
2.6 
3.4 
11.7 
4.1 
4.7 
5.7 
5.8 
.9 
4.3 
3.3 
3.3 
4.6 
4.8 
5.1 

Canada   field   pea    (grain)... 
Cowpea    (grain)    

Bloodmeal    

Oilmeal    O.    P  

Oilmeal     N      P 

Dark   feeding   flour    

Red   dog   flour    

Wheat    middlings     
Wheat    shorts    

Buckwheat    middlings    
Buckwheat   shorts    

LIQUID    FEEDS.* 


Skimmilk      

90.6 
90.1 

2.9 
3.9 

5.2 
4.0 

.3 
1.1 

.7 
.7 

Buttermilk     

*Under   certain   conditions   these   may   become   roughages. 

general  feeding  tables  such  as  are  given  in  "Feeds  and 
Feeding"  by  Henry.  In  these  tables,  however,  water  and 
mineral  matter  are  not  considered  as  digestible  nutrients. 
According  to  data  obtained  by  the  writer,  it  seems  ad- 


132 


SWINE 


visable  to  also  classify  water  as  a  nutrient  and  assume, 
since  the  pig  requires  more  than  is  present  in  ordinary 
feed  stuffs,  that  the  entire  quantity  is  digestible.  Hence 
in  the  accompanying  tables  the  entire  water  content  is 
given  under  the  head  of  digestible  nutrients.  The  min- 
eral matter  included  in  the  table  under  this  head  is  also 
the  total  ash  content  of  the  feeds  obtained  from  com- 
position tables : 

NITROGENOUS   ROUGHAGES— DRY   FEEDS. 


• 

Digestible  Nutrients  Per  100  Ibs. 

Alfalfa  hay     

Water 

Crude 
protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Ether 
extract 

Mineral 
matter 

8.4 
15.3 
11.9 

7.0 
5.4 
10.2 

37.3 
38.2 

41.2 

1.4 
1.8 
2.9 

7.4 
6.2 

5.8 

Clover  hay   (red)  

Wheat     bran 

GREEN    FEEDS. 


Alfalfa     

71  8 

3  0 

•    11  2 

4 

2  7 

Clover     (red)  . 

70  8 

2  2 

14  8 

7 

2  1 

Cowpeas     

83  6 

1  8 

8  7 

2 

1  7 

75  1 

3  2 

11  0 

5 

2  6 

Vetch 

Clovers  other   than   red  

CARBONACEOUS   ROUGHAGES— GREEN   FEEDS. 


Rape 

84  5 

1  5 

8  1 

2 

2  0 

Bluegrass 

66.1 

3  0 

19  8 

8 

2  8 

Oat  fodder  

62.2 

2.6 

18.9 

1.0 

2.5 

Rye  fodder 

76  6 

2  1 

14.1 

.4 

1  8 

The  green  feeds  that  are  specified  under  the  head  of 
carbonaceaus  concentrates  contain  a  great  deal  of  water. 
It  is  evident  that,  if  fed  in  large  enough  quantities  to 
compel  the  pig  to  take  more  water  than  his  system  de- 
mands, these  feeds  would  become  roughages  in  the  sense 


BUILDING  MATERIAL  133 

that  the  pig  would  be  compelled  to  take  more  bulk  in  the 
form  of  water  than  would  normally  go  with  the  proper 
quantity  of  nutrients  other  than  water.  This  would  have 
a  tendency  to  distend  the  capacity  of  his  digestive  appara- 
tus. An  excess  of  water,  however,  would  have  detrimen- 
tal effects  upon  the  pig. 

The  liquid  feeds  specified  under  the  head  of  nitrog- 
enous concentrates  may  likewise  be  considered  either 
as  concentrates  or  roughages,  the  same  as  the  green  feeds 
given  under  the  head  of  carbonaceous  concentrates. 

The  nitrogenous  roughages  are  given  under  two  subject 
heads,  dry  feeds  and  green  feeds.  The  dry  feeds  are 
roughages  because  of  the  large  quantity  of  crude  fiber 
they  contain.  The  green  feeds  also  contain  the  crude 
fiber,  but  relatively  less  than  the  dry  feeds  because  they 
at  the  same  time  contain  a  large  quantity  of  water.  This, 
of  course,  plays  an  important  part  in  the  metabolism  of 
the  animal  body,  and  may  take  the  place  of  water  that  is 
fed  as  such  in  connection  with  dry  feeds. 

The  carbonaceous  roughages  are  all  in  the  form  of 
green  feeds  and  may  be  considered  in  the  same  light,  as 
far  as  water  is  concerned,  as  the  green  feeds  under  the 
head  of  nitrogenous  roughages. 

WATER. 

Water,  as  already  stated,  is  not  generally  considered  a 
food  nutrient,  but  recent  developments  in  the  experimen- 
tal work  of  the  writer  at  the  Illinois  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station  attach  enough  importance  to  a  definite 
quantity  of  water  in  a  ration  that  it  seems  advisable  to 
classify  it  also  as  a  nutrient. 

Water  is  necessary  in  the  metabolism  of  the  animal 
body  and  is  present  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  as  a  part 


134  SWINE 

of  all  feeds.  Those  classified  as  dry  feeds  contain  a  com- 
paratively small  per  cent  of  water,  ranging  from  8  to  18 
per  cent,  while  the  succulent  feeds,  such  as  grass  and 
roots,  may  contain  as  high  as  85  to  90  per  cent  of  water. 
The  liquid  feeds  such  as  skim  milk  and  buttermilk  also 
contain  a  large  per  cent  of  water — from  85  to  90.  In  or- 
der that  a  hog  may  develop  properly,  he  must  have  a  suf- 
ficient amount  of  water.  If  this  is  not  present  in  suffi- 
cient quantities'  in  the  feeds  used  in  the  ration,  and  it 
usually  is  not  except  in  the  liquid  feeds  and  roots,  it  must 
be  supplied  as  such. 

AIR. 

Aside  from  the  dry  feeds  and  from  water,  there  is  a 
third  source  from  which  the  building  material  for  the 
animal  body  is  obtained.  This  is  the  oxygen  from  the  air. 
While  great  stress  has  been  laid  upon  dry  feeds,  and  a 
great  amount  of  experimental  work  has  been  done  to  de- 
termine the  value  of  dry  feeds  of  different  kinds,  very 
little  has  been  done  to  determine  the  value  of  water,  and 
nothing  has  been  done  as  regards  the  value  of  air  in  the 
nutrition  of  the  animal  body,  although  pure  air  has  al- 
ways been  considered  essential  for  the  health  of  the  ani- 
mal. Nevertheless,  it  is  known  that  an  animal  can  live 
for  weeks  without  any  dry  feeds;  it  can  live  for  several 
days  without  any  water ;  but  it  cannot  live  for  more  than 
a  few  minutes  without  air.  From  this  it  would  seem 
that  these  sources  of  food  supply  have  been  considered  in 
reverse  order.  If  an  animal  can  live  but  a  few  minutes 
without  air,  or  a  supply  of  oxygen,  should  not  this  point 
be  given  primary  consideration?  And  if  it  can  live  but  a 
comparatively  short  time  without  water,  this  should  also 
be  given  more  consideration  than  has  been  done  in  the 
past. 


CHAPTER  XL 
COMMON  PRACTICE  OF  FEEDING. 

FEEDS. 

In  the  common  practice  of  swine  feeding  hogs  are  sup- 
plied with  feeds  of  which  there  are  a  large  variety,  as  in- 
dicated by  the  table  in  the  preceding  chapter.  A  hog  is 
required  to  take  these  feeds,  and  convert  them  into  the 
tissues  of  his  body.  The  gap  between  the  raw  feeds  and 
the  finished  product  in  the  form  of  animal  tissues  is  very 
great.  The  processes  necessary  for  such  operations 
would  be  comparable  to  the  building  of  a  frame  house 
from  the  trees  of  the  forest.  An  ordinary  house  contains 
several  classes  of  material  such  as  soft  wood  and  hard 
wood.  In  order  to  supply  this,  pine  trees  and  oak  trees 
may  be  used.  Before  the  house  can  be  built,  these  trees 
must  be  cut  down,  sawed  into  logs,  taken  to  the  saw- 
mill and  cut  up  into  lumber,  and  this  must  then  be 
finished  and  made  into  various  forms  in  different  ways 
to  get  it  into  proper  shape  for  use  in  the  construction  of 
the  house.  It  would  be  a  rather  crude  process  for  a  car- 
penter to  build  such  a  house  from  only  the  trees  of  the 
forest.  If  a  large  number  of  houses  were  to  be  built,  it 
would  be  possible  to  select  trees  properly  so  as  to  have 
the  right  proportion  between  the  amount  of  soft  and  hard 
wood,  but  the  carpenter  is  not  supplied  with  the  necessary 
manufacturing  processes  to  render  the  material  in  the  raw 
state  suitable  for  use  in  house  construction. 

The  stomach  of  the  hog  is  the  manufacturing  plant  for 
the  animal.  It  takes  the  raw  material,  or  the  feeds  as 

(135) 


136  SWINE 

they  are  supplied,  and  converts  them  into  their  con- 
stituent parts  or  food  nutrients,  such  as  water,  protein, 
carbohydrate,  ether  extract  or  fat,  and  mineral  matter. 
These  can  then  be  used  fo*r  the  structure  of  the  various 
body  tissues. 

When  feeds  are  used  as  the  basis  of  swine  feeding,  it 
can  easily  be  seen  that  there  is  danger  of  supplying  more 
of  one  class  of  material,  or  one  nutrient,  than  the  pig  can 
use  to  the  best  advantage,  and  at  the  same  time  supply 
too  little  of  some  other  nutrient.  Consequently  the  foun- 
dation upon  which  the  common  practice  of  swine  feeding 
is  built  is  not  as  good  as  it  should  be.  Nevertheless, 
through  a  long  series  of  years  it  has  come  to  be  com- 
monly known  that  certain  feeds,  when  used  under  certain 
conditions,  will  produce  desirable  results  and  others  will 
not.  Conditions,  however,  are  so  numerous  and  so  varia- 
ble, and  the  requirements  of  the  animal  body  seem  to  be 
so  exact  and  to  have  never  been  accurately  determined, 
that  the  common  practice  of  swine  feeding  does  not  as  a 
whole  give  as  good  results  as  it  should. 

WATER. 

With  this  system  of  feeding  the  pig  is  usually  given  free 
access  to  water.  He  is  allowed  to  drink  as  little  or  as 
much  of  this  as  he  will,  and  very  often  is  allowed  to  use 
it  as  a  wallow,  thus  helping  to  keep  the  animal  cool  dur- 
ing the  hot  weather.  For  such  purposes  it  is  very  essen- 
tial that  the  water  be  pure  and  wholesome.  Very  often 
the  hog  is  considered  as  a  scavenger  and  is  required  to 
drink  filthy  and  unwholesome  water,  which  of  course  is 
not  conducive  to  the  best  results. 
PASTURE. 

Pasture  plays  a  very  important  part  in  the  common 
practice  of  swine  feeding.  Besides  getting  fresh  and 


COMMON   PRACTICE   OF   FEEDING  137 

palatable  feed  the  pig  in  such  cases  harvests  the  crop 
which  saves  considerable  expense.  He  also  usually  gets 
a  greater  variety  of  feed  as  well  as  different  mineral 
substances  that  may  be  gathered  from  the  soil  in  different 
places.  While  the  feed  gathered  from  the  pasture  in  the 
form  of  grass,  plants  of  various  kinds,  etc.,  is  of  the  na- 
ture of  a  roughage,  still  the  pig  can  use  a  considerable 
quantity  of  this  even  though  he  is  primarily  adapted  to 
concentrated  feeds.  In  fact,  he  will  do  better  with  some 
roughages  in  his  ration  than  he  will  to  be  confined  en- 
tirely to  concentrates,  especially  if  the  former  are  gath- 
ered from  the  pasture.  The  pasture  exercises  a  consid- 
erable influence  besides  the  feeds  it  supplies. 

SUMMER  FEEDING. 

Pigs,  ordinarily,  unde-r  the  common  practice  of  feeding, 
are  farrowed  in  the  spring.  They  are  then  developed  dur- 
ing the  summer  season,  and  sold  the  following  fall  or  win- 
ter, or  else  carried  over  and  sold  the  next  season.  It  has 
been  found  by  experience  that  a  growing  pig  can  be  de- 
veloped well  during  the  summer  season,  but  that  feeding 
a  young  pig  during  the  winter  season  is  only  rarely  suc- 
cessful. A  hog  may  be  fattened  to  very  good  advantage 
during  the  winter. 

WINTER  FEEDING. 

The  reason  that  winter  feeding  is  not  as  successful  as 
summer  feeding  is  indicated  at  least  in  part  by  the  recent 
experimental  data  of  the  writer.  This  is  especially 
true  in  the  corn  belt  of  the  United  States  where 
corn,  a  carbonaceous  concentrate,  is  the  principal  feed. 
This  may  be  used  in  summer  feeding  to  fairly  good  ad- 
vantage. The  pig  under  such  conditions  will  get  the  nee- 


138  SWINE 

essary  carbohydrate  from  the  corn  and  will  get  a  little 
protein,  probably  sufficient  for  maintenance.  Then  if  he 
has  access  to  pasture,  he  will  get  more  or  less  mineral 
matter  and  protein  from  the  soil,  herbs  and  grasses  of 
the  pasture.  In  case  clover  or  alfalfa  is  available  con- 
siderable protein  will  be  obtained.  These  will  supple- 
ment the  carbonaceous  concentrate  sufficiently  well  so 
that  good  results  are  possible.  During  the  winter  season, 
when  pasture  is  not  available  and  the  growing  pig  is  re- 
quired to  develop  on  corn  alone,  he  cannot  progress  sat- 
isfactorily. 

Another  series  of  data  show  that  a  given  and  'definite 
amount  of  water  is  very  essential  for  the  proper  develop- 
ment of  the  pig.  During  the  summer  season  when  the 
weather  is  warm,  and  many  times  hot,  the  pig  will  drink 
a  considerable  quantity  of  water.  On  hot  days  he  will 
even  .drink  too  much.  During  the  winter  season,  with  the 
other  extreme  of  temperature,  the  pig  will  not  drink 
enough  water  for  normal  development.  Furthermore, 
when  pigs  have  access  to  pasture  they  will  take  a  consid- 
erable amount  of  exercise  which  is  conducive  to  good  res- 
piration; hence  they  take  in  an  abundance  of  oxygen. 
During  the  winter  season  when  the  weather  is  cold  the 
pig  will  take  less  exercise,  so  that  this  source  of  food  sup- 
ply will  be  greatly  curtailed  and  the  pig  will  suffer  ac- 
cordingly. Consequently,  lack  of  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
protein,  of  water,  and  of  oxygen  is  apparently  the  most 
serious  handicap  to  the  winter  feeding  of  pigs.  If  these 
can  be  supplied  pigs  apparently  can  be  fed  with  equal 
success  in  winter  as  in  summer  except  in  very  cold 
climates.  • 

HOGGING  DOWN  CORN. 

This  practice,  consisting  of  letting  the  pigs  eat  the  corn 
from  the  stalks  in  the  field,  has  become  quite  common 


COMMON  PRACTICE  OF   FEEDING  139 

during  recent  years  because  it  saves  labor.  It  has  its  ad- 
vantages and  disadvantages.  The  advantages  are  that  it 
saves  the  labor  of  gathering  the  corn  for  the  pigs,  fur- 
nishes the  grain  to  them  in  its  natural  and  therefore  most 
palatable  form,  and  distributes  the  manure  on  the  field, 
thus  saving  all  of  it  and  saving  the  expense  of  hauling  it 
out.  The  disadvantages  are  that  the  corn  in  this  form  is 
not  always  available  at  the  proper  time.  Corn  cannot 
be  used  successfully  as  an  exclusive  feed  for  swine  ex- 
cept during  the  fattening  period,  which  should  not  occupy 
more  than  about  eight  weeks  at  the  close  of  the  feeding 
period.  During  this  time,  corn  may  be  given  in  this  man- 
ner to  good  advantage,  but  when  fattening  hogs  are  al- 
lowed free  access  to  a  corn  field,  they  are  likely  to  waste 
a  considerable  quantity.  If  younger  pigs  are  allowed  to 
run  with  the  fattening  hogs  to  pick  up  the  part  that  the 
older  hogs  waste,  this  may  be  saved,  but  growing  pigs 
will  not  develop  properly  under  such  conditions. 

If  a  pig  or  a  growing  hog  is  allowed  free  access  to  the 
corn  field  there  is  great  danger  that  he  will  eat  more  than 
he  can  use  to  the  best  advantage.  The  hog  must  have  a 
suitable  quantity  of  protein  as  well  as  mineral  matter, 
besides  the  carbonaceous  concentrate,  corn.  If  he  eats  too 
much  corn,  he  will  have  a  decidedly  unbalanced  ration 
and  will  not  develop  as  he  should.  If  at  the  same  time 
he  is  given  free  access  to  nitrogenous  concentrates  like 
soy-beans  or  peas,  he  may  eat  either  the  corn  or  the 
nitrogenous  concentrate,  according  to  the  way  he  has 
been  trained  or  as  his  appetite  dictates.  Hence  he  will 
not  do  well  in  either  case  because  neither  one  nor  the 
other  of  the  two  above  mentioned  feeds  will  allow  the 
hog  to  develop  normally.  It  is  only  by  furnishing  the 
proper  quantity  of  the  various  food  nutrients  per  hun- 


140  SWINE 

dred   pounds   live  weight  that  the  best  results   can  be 
obtained. 

WORK  OF  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS. 

The  experiment  stations  of  the  world,  and  especially 
those  of  the  United  States,  have  done  a  great  deal  of  work 
along  the  line  of  swine  feeding.  The  major  part  of  this 
work  has  been  in  the  nature  of  short  feeding  trials  to  test 
the  value  of  different  feeds  and  different  rations.  Con- 
siderable of  this  work  also  was  directed  along  the  lines 
of  the  analysis  of  feed  stuffs  and  to  determine  the  coeffi- 
cients of  digestibility  for  the  feeds.  In  the  main,  the  re- 
sults of  this  work  as  a  whole  are  good,  but  very  often 
such  results  are  greatly  influenced  by  the  conditions  un- 
der which  they  were  determined.  In  such  cases,  if  they 
are  to  be  used  correctly,  they  must  be  properly  inter- 
preted. A  few  examples  may  be  cited  in  this  connection 
as  follows: 

The  American  experiment  stations  have  determined 
that  skim  milk  has  a  value  that  is  considerably  greater 
than  was  determined  by  Danish  experiments.  In  the 
American  experiments  4^75  pounds  of  skim  milk  is  equal 
to  1  pound  of  grain,  while  in  the  Danish  experiments  it 
requires  6  pounds  of  skim  milk  to  equal  1  pound  of  grain. 
The  question  naturally  arises,  Is  there  any  difference  in 
the  skim  milk  of  different  countries  when  it  has  been  ob- 
tained by  similar  processes,  namely,  by  centrifugal  means 
of  separation?  By  studying  the  data  from  which  these 
results  were  obtained  it  is  seen  that  in  the  American  ex- 
periments the  skim  milk  was  usually  fed  as  a  supplement 
to  corn,  while  in  the  Danish  experiments  small  grains, 
such  as  rye  and  barley,  were  used. 


COMMON   PRACTICE   OF   FEEDING  141 

There  are  a  few  fundamental  principles  that  are  neces- 
sary to  get  good  results  from  any  system  of  swine  feeding. 
One  is  that  the  pig  must  have  a  certain  amount  of  pro- 
tein, more  than  is  found  in  corn.  In  other  words,  he  must 
have  a  more  "nearly  balanced  ration  than  corn  can  sup- 
ply. Secondly,  he  should  have  a  variety  of  feeds  because 
the  greater  the  number  of  feeds  in  a  ration  the  better  will 
be  the  results  obtained  from  its  use.  When  skim  milk 
was  used  in  the  American  experiments  in  addition  to 
corn,  it  furnished  the  protein  and  also  improved  the  ra- 
tion very  greatly  by  way  of  variety.  Corn  is  a  carbona- 
ceous concentrate  and  skim  milk  in  limited  quantities  is  a 
nitrogenous  concentrate.  Thus  by  the  addition  of  skim 
milk  to  this  otherwise  corn  ration,  very  much  better  re- 
sults are  possible  which  would  naturally  be  accredited 
to  the  milk.  Aside  from  this,  by  comparing  corn  with 
corn  and  skim  milk,  the  latter  ration  is  double  in  effi- 
ciency so  far  as  variety  is  concerned. 

In  the  Danish  experiments  where  several  small  grains 
were  used,  neither  one  of  these  differences  is  so  great. 
The  small  grains,  such  as  barley  and  rye,  contain  more 
protein  than  corn ;  hence  the  addition  of  the  protein  in  the 
skim  milk  was  not  so  effective.  Where  several  small 
grains  are  used  in  the  basal  rafion,  the  addition  of  skim 
milk  does  not  improve  the  ration  so  greatly  by  way  of 
variety.  Consequently  it  is  easily  seen  how  results  like 
these  must  be  properly  interpreted  before  they  can  be 
used  to  the  best  advantage. 

American  experiments  also  show  that  cow-peas  are 
equal  in  food  value  to  corn.  Cow-peas  are  a  nitrogenous 
concentrate  and  corn  is  a  carbonaceous  concentrate. 
Neither  one  of  these  two  feeds  used  separately  produces 
a  well  balanced  ration.  In  the  one  case  there  is  too  much 


142  SWINE 

protein  and  in  the  other  too  much  carbohydrate.  Thus 
in  a  test  of  this  kind  there  is  simply  a  balance  between 
two  evils,  one  of  which  is  as  great  as  the  other. 

Another  American  experiment  has  shown  that  rape  is 
a  better  feed  for  swine  than  clover.  Here  again  the  con- 
ditions under  which  the  results  were  determined  are  of 
the  greatest  importance.  In  this  particular  case  the  basal 
ration,  or  the  feeds  that  were  used  supplementary  to  pas- 
ture, was  made  up  of  middlings  and  skim  milk.  Mid- 
dlings and  skim  milk  are  both  classified  as  nitrogenous 
concentrates  and  when  fed  in  connection  with  clover  pas- 
ture, three  nitrogenous  feeds  were  used  in  the  ration. 
When  fed  in  connection  with  rape,  two  nitrogenous  and 
one  carbonaceous  feed  were  used,  the  rape  being  car- 
bonaceous in  nature.  In  the  former  case  it  is  quite  evi- 
dent that  an  excess  of  protein  was  fed  and  a  deficiency 
of  carbohydrate  which  clearly  would  not  produce  as  good 
results  as  in  the  latter  case  where  the  ration  was  more 
nearly  balanced. 

Thus  very  many  results  from  experimental  data  need 
proper  interpretation.  In  the  main,  however,  much  valua- 
ble work  has  been  done  by  the  experiment  stations  of  the 
world,  which  needs  only  a  little  more  study  and  a  little 
more  supplementary  experimentation  to  put  the  entire 
system  of  swine  feeding  upon  a  much  firmer  foundation. 


CHAPTER  XII. 
THE  WOLFF-LEHMANN  STANDARD. 

Several  decades  ago  the  German  scientists,  whose 
names  are  represented  in  the  title,  worked  out  the  above 
named  feeding  standard.  The  foundation  for  this  ap- 
parently is  the  nutritive  ratio  of  the  ration  and  the  appe- 
tite of  the  pig.  By  nutritive  ratio  is  meant  the  relation 
in  energy  value  between  the  protein  on  the  one  hand,  and 
the  carbohydrate  and  fat  on  the  other.  The  way  it  is  ob- 
tained is  as  follows : 

NUTRITIVE  RATIO. 

Since  the  fat  of  ether  extract  furnishes  2.25  times  as" 
much  energy  as  either  the  protein  or  the  carbohydrate, 
this  nutrient  is  always  multiplied  by  2.25  in  order  to  re- 
duce it  to  the  equivalent  of  the  other  two  nutrients.  To 
this  is  added  the  carbohydrate  of  the  ration,  and  the  sum 
is  then  divided  by  the  protein,  the  quotient  being  the  nu- 
tritive ratio.  Thus  supposing  that  a  certain  ration  con- 
tained 2  pounds  of  protein,  8  pounds  of  carbohydrate  and 
1  pound  of-  fat  or  ether  extract  the  problem  would  be 
solved  as  follows : 
Fat 

1X2.25=2.25  of  carbohydrate  or  protein  equivalent  of  fat. 
2.25+8  Ibs.  of  carbohydrate=10.25. 
10.25-^2=5.125. 

The  nutritive  ratio  of  the  above  ration  then  is  1 :5.125 
and  is  read  1  to  5.125. 

(143) 


144 


SWINE 


REQUIREMENT  OF  NUTRIENTS. 

This  standard  calls  for  certain  definite  quantities  of  dry 
matter,  and  of  the  nutrients  protein,  carbohydrate  and 


m 


DRY 


3-0 


BOH 


CUT    17.— GRAPHIC    SCHEME    FOR    PIG    FEEDING. 

ether  extract,  at  different  stages  in  the  life  of  the  pig, 
which   can   be   shown   to   best   advantage  by   means   of 


THE   WOLFF-LEHMANN   STANDARD  145 

curves  as  shown  in  the  cut,  17.  The  horizontal  spaces 
in  the  illustration  as  indicated  by  the  numerals  at  the  top 
of  the  cut,  represent  weeks  and  months,  as  shown,  from 
the  ages  of  3  to  9  months.  The  vertical  spaces,  as  repre- 
sented by  the  numerals  at  the  left,  give  the  values  of  the 
different  curves  in  pounds  of  dry  matter,  protein,  carbo- 
hydrate and  ether  extract,  required  daily  per  hundred 
pounds  live  weight.  It  will  be  seen  from  this  cut  that  the 
curves  start  at  a  comparatively  high  point  and  end  at  a 
comparatively  low  point.  They  do  not  fall  gradually  be- 
tween these  two  points,  but  decline  rather  slowly  at  first, 
then  more  rapidly,  then  again  more  slowly  toward  the 
close.  The  fluctuations  of  the  curves  in  this  standard  are 
practically  in  harmony  with  the  curve  which  shows  the 
total  amount  of  feed  eaten  by  pigs  when  fed  according 
to  the  dictates  of  their  appetites,  as  shown  in  the  third 
section  of  the  cut  on  page  24.  This  shows  that  a  pig 
when  young  will  eat  a  comparatively  large  quantity  of 
feed,  and  that  he  gradually  eats  less  per  100  pounds  live 
weight  as  he  gets  older,  and  that  the  curve  fluctuates  with 
greater  rapidity  at  different  times  practically  the  same  as 
the  curves  in  the  Wolff-Lehmann  standard  as  given 
above. 

THE  STANDARD  AND  THE  PIG. 
The  manner  in  which  this  standard  is  used  is  to  mix 
the  feeds  of  the  ration  according  to  the  nutritive  ratio 
specified  therein,  trying  at  the  same  time  to  supply  the 
total  amount  of  dry  matter  called  for  by  the  standard, 
and  then  to  feed  the  pigs  as  much  of  this  as  they  will 
readily  eat.  By  using  this  system  of  feeding  for  a  num- 
ber of  years,  the  writer  has  shown  that  when  ordinary 
feeds  are  used  in  a  ration  of  this  character  and  mixed  ac- 
cording to  the  nutritive  ratio  specified  by  the  standard. 


146  SWINE 

the  pigs  when  put  nearly  on  full  feed  will  eat  practically 
the  quantities  of  digestible  nutrients  called  for  by  the 
standard.  Apparently,  then,  the  standard  was  built  up 
on  the  basis  of  the  appetite  of  the  pig.  But  the  appetite 
of  the  pig  is  more  or  less  abnormal  and  determined  very 
largely  by  feeding  and  environment,  not  only  at  the  time, 
but  also  through  several  previous  generations. 

RESULTS  FROM  USE  OF  STANDARD. 

This  standard  has  been  widely  used  by  different  ex- 
periment stations  during  late  years,  and  has  also  been 
adopted  by  many  private  feeders  of  swine.  The  results 
obtained  by  its  use  are  not  always  satisfactory,  and  where 
thoroughly  tested  are  not  so  good  as  can  be  obtained  by 
other  systems  of  feeding.  The  reason  for  this,  as  deter- 
mined by  the  writer,  are  two-fold :  First,  some  pigs 
whose  appetites  are  well  developed  may  eat  too  much 
when  fed  in  such  a  manner.  They  may  eat  more  than 
they  can  use  to  the  best  advantage  for  tissue  building, 
which  is  detrimental  to  the  pig  thereafter  by  establishing 
the  factor  of  waste.  Second,  the  amounts  of  the  various 
nutrients  of  the  ration,  according  to  this  system  of  feed- 
ing, are  not  fed  in  accordance  with  the  requirements  of 
the  laws  of  nutrition  according  to  which  the  greatest  and 
most  economical  gains  are  produced;  consequently  the 
best  results  are  not  obtainable. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
AUTHOR'S  METHOD  OF  FEEDING. 

Since  the  common  practice  of  swine  feeding  needs  fur- 
ther development,  and  since  the  Wolff-Lehmann  stand- 
ard does  not  give  maximum  and  most  economical  gains, 
a  new  method  of  feeding  has  been  developed.  This  work 
was  started  by  the  writer  in  1898  at  the  Wisconsin  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station,  continued  for  several  years 
by  practical  swine  growing  on  the  farm  in  which  scien- 
tific data  were  put  into  practice,  and  then  continued  in  an 
>  experimental  way  since  1903  at  the  Illinois  Experiment 
Station,  and  is  still  in  progress.  Although  this  new 
standard  has  not  yet  been  definitely  developed  in  every 
detail,  sufficient  headway  has  been  made  and  enough 
facts  of  importance  have  been  determined  to  warrant  a 
discussion  of  this  new  system  of  feeding. 

FACTORS  IN  FEEDING. 

In  the  cut  on  page  148,  taken  from  a  prospective 
bulletin  manuscript  as  well  as  part  of  the  discussion  rela- 
tive thereto,  the  vertical  lines  represent  the  age  of  the 
pigs  in  weeks  as  shown  at  the  top.  A  D  represents  the 
live  weight  from  the  time  they  were  17  weeks  old,  when 
the  experiment  started,  up  to  the  close  when  they  were 
46  weeks  old.  As  the  feed  is  calculated  in  per  cent  of 
live  weight,  and  in  order  to  make  the  illustration  more 
simple,  this  is  represented  as  constant.  The  space  be- 
tween the  curves  L  and  A  represents  the  total  amount  of 
feed  eaten  daily  in  per  cent  of  live  weight  multiplied  by 

(147) 


148 


SWINE 


AUTHOR'S  METHOD  OF  FEEDING  149 

100.  It  shows  that  the  pigs  ate  the  most  feed  when  they 
were  23  weeks  old,  and  that  there  was  a  marked  reduction 
in  the  amount  of  feed  eaten  after  the  thirty-first  week. 
The  division  E  A  represents  the  part  of  the  ration  used 
for  maintenance,  which,  according  to  the  maintenance  ex- 
periments of  the  writer,  is  a  constant  quantity. 

Maintenance  Requirements. — The  amount  of  feed  re- 
quired by  a  pig  for  maintenance  has  never  been  accurate- 
ly determined.  The  writer,  however,  by  means  of  several 
experiments  of  an  empirical  nature,  as  well  as  two  diges- 
tion and  metabolism  experiments  that  were  quite  com- 
plete, has  determined  approximately  how  much  of  the 
various  food  nutrients  are  required  daily  by  a  pig  for 
maintenance. 

It  has  been  found  that  a  pig  requires  daily  as  a  main- 
tenance ration  per  hundred  pounds  live  weight,  .1  pound 
of  digestible  crude  protein,  .4  pound  of  digestible  carbo- 
hydrate, and  .04  pound  of  digestible  ether  extract.  It 
has  further  been  found  that  the  maintenance  requirement 
is  the  same,  when  considered  in  per  cent  of  live  weight, 
for  pigs  of  different  ages  and  different  weights,  as  well  as 
for  pigs  of  different  breeds  and  of  different  conformation. 
This  is  contrary  to  the  idea  universally  held,  namely,  that 
the  older  the  pig,  the  more  he  requires  for  maintenance. 
While  it  is  true  that  as  the  pig  increases  in  age  and  size 
he  requires  more  in  absolute  quantity  in  accordance  with 
his  weight,  yet  the  fact  that  the  gains  are  more  expensive 
as  the  pig  advances  in  age  is  not  because  he  requires 
more  for  maintenance.  It  is  caused  by  an  increase  in  the 
factor  of  waste  and  a  decrease  in  the  amount  of  feed 
eaten  daily  per  hundred  pounds  live  weight. 

Factor  of  Waste. — When  a  pig  is  fed  more  than  a  cer- 
tain quantity  of  food  nutrients,  especially  protein,  he  does 


150  SWINE 

not  use  the  excess  over  and  above  this  quantity  as 
economically  for  producing  gains  in  live  weight  as  when 
fed  a  quantity  below  this  amount.  The  portion  that  is 
lost  on  account  of  this  less  economical  use  is  what  is 
called  the  factor  of  waste.  When  an  animal  is  once  put 
under  such  conditions,  the  habit  of  wasting  apparently  is 
more  or  less  permanently  established. 

On  account  of  the  tendency  of  the  animal  body  to  estab- 
lish nitrogen  equilibrium  there  is  a  constantly  increasing 
quantity  of  crude  protein  wasted  (excreted  without  hav- 
ing served  any  purpose  in  the  body  whatever).  This  also 
consumes  considerable  energy  and  possibly  causes  physio- 
logical disturbances  which,  together  with  the  cabohy- 
drate  and  ether  extract  that  may  also  be  wasted,  along 
with  the  crude  protein,  makes  up  the  factor  of  waste 
represented  in  the  drawing  by  G  E.  It  will  be  no- 
ticed that  at  the  point  when  the  pigs  were  33  weeks  old, 
the  feed  used  for  maintenance  plus  the  feed  used  to  sup- 
ply the  factor  of  waste  is  equal  to  the  total  amount  of 
feed  eaten.  This  left  no  feed  to  be  used  for  putting  on 
flesh  and  fat  and  the  result  was  that  the  pigs  made  no 
gains  in  live  weight  at  this  time.  They  remained  sta- 
tionary throughout  the  period  of  one  week.  This  is  a 
point  where  nitrogen  equilibrium  (an  equality  between 
the  amounts  coming  in  and  going  out)  probably  was 
either  established,  or  exceeded. 

It  is  supposed  that  at  birth  the  factor  of  waste  is  ab- 
sent or  at  least  at  the  lowest  possible  point  and  that  in 
this  experiment  it  was  constantly  increased  up  to  the 
point  H.  But  if  the  facts  of  the  case  were  known,  as  al- 
ready indicated,  it  is  probable,  and  very  likely,  that  the 
curve  G  H  would  run  at  a  higher  level  than  is  here  rep- 
resented, and  that  it  had  reached  its  highest  point  some- 


AUTHOR'S  METHOD  OF  FEEDING  151 

where  between  M^and  S  and  then  gradually  descended 
to  H. 

This  would  leave  a  smaller  part  of  the  ration  available 
for  making  gains  than  is  represented  in  the  cut.  It  will 
be  noticed  that  at  the  point  S,  when  the  pigs  were  31 
weeks  old,  they  "went  off  feed,"  and  after  this  time  ate 
but  little  more  than  was  necessary  for  maintenance  and 
for  waste.  At  the  points  V  and  X  the  curve  for  feed 
eaten  actually  runs  below  the  curve  for  the  feed  required 
for  maintenance  and  for  waste.  The  result  was  that  the 
pigs  lost  in  weight. 

In  order  to  illustrate  the  factor  of  waste  the  following 
example  taken  from  proposed  bulletin  manuscript,  is 
given :  Suppose  that  a  young  man  from  the  country  with 
economical  and  good  moral  habits  goes  to  the  city  to  take 
up  his  life's  work  and  receives  a  salary  beginning  at  $50 
per  month.  Going  from  the  country,  where  the  opportu- 
nities for  spending  money  are  limited,  and  going  from  a 
family  where  such  young  man  has  received  economical 
training,  he  will  be  able  in  the  city  on  a  salary  of  $50  per 
month  to  live  on  about  half  of  this,  or  $25  per  month, 
spending  about  $15  per  month  for  room  and  board  and 
$10  per  month  for  clothes  and  incidental  expenses.  This 
will  allow  him  to  "lay  by"  $25  per  month,  which  will  start 
a  bank  account  at  the  beginning  and  which  will  gradually 
be  increased  month  by  month.  But  as  time  progresses 
and  this  man  becomes  acquainted  more  and  more,  he 
will  gradually  take  up  the  mode  of  living  that  is  prac- 
ticed by  his  associates,  will  go  into  more  and  better  so- 
ciety, will  wear  better  clothes,  board  at  a  higher  priced 
boarding  house,  live  in  a  better  room,  and  spend  more  for 
transportation  in  going  to  and  from  his  work,  etc.  This 
will  gradually  but  surely  increase  his  living  expenses  so 


152  SWINE 

that  the  $25  per  month  that  was  set  aside  at  the  beginning 
with  which  to  increase  his  bank  account  will  gradually  be 
cut  down,  and  before  very  long  there  will  come  a  time 
at  which  he  will  have  established  a  money  equilibrium, 
or,  in  other  words,  the  total  receipts  from  his  salary  will 
just  balance  his  total  expenditures,  which  will  result  in 
zero  as  far  as  increasing  his  bank  account  is  concerned. 
In  order  now  to  further  increase  his  bank  account,  his 
salary  must  be  raised,  say  to  $75  per  month.  This  for  the 
time  being  will  again  allow  him  to  set  aside  $25  per 
month,  but  as  time  again  progresses  his  expenses  will 
naturally  increase  so  that  before  many  years  have  elapsed 
he  will  again  have  established  an  equilibrium  between 
his  income  and  expenditures.  In  order  to  allow  a  further 
increase  in  said  bank  account  the  salary  must  again  be 
increased  to,  say  $100  per  month.  The  process  will  here 
be  repeated,  allowing  an  increase  in  the  bank  account  at 
first  and  again  establishing  an  equilibrium  later  on.  This 
illustrates  the  tendency  in  the  animal  body  toward  nitro- 
gen equilibrium,  namely,  to  excrete  as  much  nitrogen  as 
is  taken  in  in  its  food. 

The  establishment  of  the  factor  of  waste,  or  the  higher 
rate  of  living  in  the  case  of  the  young  man,  is  not  an  abso- 
lute necessity,  but  the  natural  result  of  prevailing  condi- 
tions. Thus  also  a  pig,  apparently,  does  not  necessarily 
have  to  establish  the  factor  of  waste,  but  usually  does 
under  prevailing  conditions  of  high  feeding  because  either 
too  much  is  fed,  or  the  amount  fed  to  a  bunch  is  not 
equally  distributed,  resulting  in  an  excess  for  those  eating 
the  most;  or,  the  environment  may  be  changed  so  that 
the  pig  cannot  use  a  constant  quantity  and  is  fed  the  same 
as  usual. 

If  the  pig  requires  .1  pound  of  protein  per  day  per 


AUTHOR'S  METHOD  OF  FEEDING  153 

hundred  pounds  live  weight,  to  supply  its  normal  protein 
metabolism,  and  is  getting  .6  pound  in  its  ration,  it  will 
be  able  to  use  for  storing  up  in  its  body  .5  pound,  pro- 
vided there  is  no  waste.  Obviously,  however,  this  does 
not  necessarily  make  .5  pound  of  protein  tissue  in  the 
body.  This  is  comparable  to  the  bank  account  in  the 
illustration  used.  However,  on  account  of  the  tendency 
of  the  animal  body,  under  prevailing  conditions  to  estab- 
lish nitrogen  equilibrium,  this  .5  pound  that  at  first  was 
used  to  increase  the  store  of  protein  and  thereby  add  to 
the  live  weight  of  the  pig,  will  gradually  be  decreased. 
After  feeding  this  constant  quantity  of  .6  pound  for  some 
time  there  will  be  a  tendency  to  establish  nitrogen  equili- 
brium so  that  the  animal  will  be  excreting  as  much  pro- 
tein as  is  eaten  without  storing  any  of  it  in  its  body.  In 
order  to  further  increase  the  store  of  protein  in  the  body, 
it  is  necessary  to  increase  the  amount  of  feed  exactly 
similar  to  the  increase  in  the  salary  of  the  man  in  the 
illustration  given. 

Suppose  now  that  the  pig  has  come  to  a  point  of  nitro- 
gen equilibrium  by  eating  .6  pound  of  protein  per  hun- 
dred pounds  live  weight  daily.  As  it  gets  older  the  pig 
normally  eats  a  smaller  quantity  of  feed  per  hundred 
pounds  live  weight  daily,  which  naturally  also  decreases 
its  protein  supply.  In  order  to  show  what  will  take  place 
under  these  conditions,  the  case  already  used  as  an  argu- 
ment will  again  be  taken  up  at  the  point  at  which  it  was 
left,  namely,  granting  that  the  young  man  has  come  to  a 
monetary  equilibrium  when  he  is  receiving  a  salary  of 
$100  per  month.  If  now  his  salary  is  cut  down  to  $75  per 
month,  what  will  take  place?  The  man,  having  become 
accustomed  to  living  at  the  rate  of  $100  per  month,  will, 
on  this  reduced  salary,  at  least  for  some  time,  draw  upon 


154  SWINE 

his  bank  account  to  supply  the  deficiency.  But  knowing 
that  his  bank  account  under  these  conditions  will  eventu- 
ally become  obliterated,  he  will,  or  at  least  he  should, 
gradually  accustom  himself  to  living  less  extravagantly, 
finally  reaching  an  equilibrium  at  $75  per  month.  This 
then  will  eliminate  the 'factor  that  is  drawing  upon  his 
bank  account,  and  if  he  is  of  an  economical  disposition, 
he  will  reduce  his  living  to  a  little  less  than  $75  per 
month,  again  enabling  him  to  add  to  his  store  in  the 
bank.  The  amount  he  can  save,  however,  will  not  be  as 
great  as  it  was  at  the  beginning  of  the  period  when  his 
salary  was  increased  from  $50  to  $75  per  month,  because 
it  is  a  difficult  matter  to  reduce  the  expense  of  living, 
after  it  has  once  been  set  up,  to  the  point  where  it  was  be- 
fore such  extravagant  habits  were  learned.  If  now  his 
salary  is  reduced  to  $50  per  month,  or  the  point  at  which 
he  started,  the  same  process  of  drawing  on  his  bank  ac- 
count to  supply  the  deficiency  will  be  repeated,  and  it 
will  be  with  exceedingly  great  difficulty  that  it  will  be 
possible  for  this  man  to  return. to  his  former  basis  and 
be  able  to  lay  up  any  of  his  salary  at  this  time. 

The  same  thing  apparently  takes  place  in  the  protein 
metabolism  of  the  pig.  The  pig  being  accustomed  to  met- 
abolize for  maintenance  and  waste  .6  pound  of  protein 
per  day,  which  is  received  in  its  ration,  will,  when  this  is 
reduced  to  a  smaller  quantity,  use  more  for  these  purposes 
than  is  received  and  consequently  will  reduce  its  store  of 
protein  tissue  in  the  body.  However,  after  being  fed  a 
reduced  quantity  for  some  time,  this  factor  of  waste  is 
gradually  reduced,  the  pig  again  reaching  a  point  of  nitro- 
gen equilibrium  on  the  reduced  quantity  of  feed.  This 
may  be  continued  as  in  the  case  we  have  used,  but  under 
normal  conditions  it  will  never  be  possible  to  bring  the 


AUTHOR'S  METHOD  OF  FEEDING  155 

pig  back  to  a  point  where  it  will  be  able  to  use  for  making 
protein  tissue  as  much  of  the  protein  of  its  feed  as  it  was 
able  to  use  prior  to  the  time  at  which  it  was  fed  the  maxi- 
mum quantity. 

It  has  been  found  that  the  influence  of  this  high  pro- 
tein feeding  will,  under  normal  conditions,  continue  in  the 
metabolism  of  the  pig  indefinitely,  and  that  the  factor  of 
waste,  when  once  established,  is  eliminated  with  very 
great  difficulty.  Consequently  the  pig,  after  having  once 
been  fed  an  excess  of  protein,  is  not  as  economical  a  meat 
producer  as  it  was  before  that  time,  unless  this  factor  of 
waste  is  eliminated  or  materially  reduced. 

If  the  factor  of  waste  is  once  established,  it  can  be  ma- 
terially reduced  by  feeding  the  pig  for  a  considerable 
length  of  time  a  smaller  quantity  of  feed,  especially  pro- 
tein. Perhaps  the  best  way  to  do  this  is  gradually  to  re- 
duce the  feed  during  a  period  of  about  four  weeks.  If  the 
reduction  is  too  rapid,  the  pig  will,  on  account  of  this 
tendency  or  habit  that  was  established  by  previous  feed- 
ing, continue  to  metabolize  and  waste  material  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  amount  of  feed  previously  eaten.  If 
not  enough  is  present  in  the  ration  to  supply  this  rate  of 
excretion  that  was  established,  the  tissues  of  the  body 
will  be  called  upon  to  supply  the  deficiency.  This  results 
in  the  breaking  down  of  the  protein  tissue  with  a  ten- 
dency to  reduce  the  vitality  of  the  pig,  and  at  the  same 
time  check  the  amount  of  gains  being  made. 

Feed  Available  for  Making  Gains. — The  amount  of 
feed  that  is  available  for  making  gains  depends  upon  the 
two  mentioned  fa'ctors, — first,  the  factor  of  maintenance 
will  have  to  be  supplied;  second,  the  factor  of  waste  will 
consume  what  is  necessary  for  it.  If  a  pig  is  able  to  eat 
and  digest  more  than  is  used  to  supply  these  two  factors, 


156 


SWINE 


it  can  use  the  remainder  for  tissue  building  or  for  making 
gains  in  live  weight. 

REQUIREMENT  OF  NUTRIENTS. 

According  to  the  author's  system  of  feeding,  the  pig  is 
fed  certain  quantities  of  digestible  nutrients  per  100 
pounds  live  weight  daily  as  follows : 


•W; 

T: 

3k 

4 

ii 

1 

5 

1 

i 

[1 

4 

b 

It 

"7 

ii 
B 

1 

M 

*« 

Ii 

(k 

I 

'<; 

2 

2 
7 

?5 

1} 

4 

55   26 

H- 

*  -* 

E 

55 

4-0 

*  »> 

-D- 

•v 

-tt- 

•* 

-+ 

5 

ts 

CUT     19.— WATER     REQUIREMENT     OF     MARKET     PIGS. 

Water  Requirement. — In  the  above  cut  as  well  as  in 
those  on  pages  157,  158,  159  and  160,  the  weeks  are  indi- 
cated at  the  top.  The  second  line  shows  that  the  pigs 
are  two  months  old  at  the  beginning,  the  time  at  which 
they  are  weaned.  Thus  the  horizontal  spaces  represent 
time;  the  vertical  spaces  as  shown  by  the  figures  at  the 
left  represent  pounds.  The  value  of  the  curve  at  any 
particular  age  of  the  pig  is  obtained  by  taking  the  amount 
in  pounds,  as  indicated  at  the  left,  for  the  point  at  which 
the  curve  crosses  the  vertical  line  indicating  the  age  of 
the  pig. 

This  cut  shows  the  total  amount  of  water  required  by 
the  growing  and  fattening.  Starting  at  two  months  of 
age  it  should  have  13  pounds  daily,  including  that  of  the 
dry  feeds,  per  hundred  pounds  live  weight.  This  is  grad- 
ually reduced  to  10  pounds  at  about  five  and  one-half 
months  of  age  and  then  to  5  pounds  at  eight  months  of 
age. 


AUTHOR'S  METHOD  OF  FEEDING 


157 


For  pigs  that  are  being  developed  for  breeding  pur- 
poses the  water  curve  should  run  during  the  same  time 
from  13  pounds  to  about  9  pounds,  as  shown  in  the  cut 
inserted  below.  After  this  it  should  remain  about  con- 
stant. 


CUT    19A.— WATER    REQUIREMENT    OF    BREEDING    PIGS. 

By  giving  the  pigs  dry  feed  or  a  thick  slop  and  then  free 
access  to  water  they  do  not  do  as  well  as  in  cases  where 
the  specified  quantities  of  water  are  mixed  with  most  of 
the  dry  feeds  in  the  form  of  slop.  During  the  cold 
weather  of  winter  the  pig  under  such  conditions  will  not 
drink  enough  and  during  the  hot  weather  of  summer  it 
might  even  drink  too  much,  but  the  latter  is  the  lesser 
of  the  two  evils. 

While  the  pig  requires  certain  definite  quantities  of 
water,  as  already  outlined,  when  fed  the  required  amounts 
of  other  digestible  nutrients,  it  may,  under  other  sys- 
tems of  feeding,  require  different  quantities  of  water,  in 
accordance  with  the  manner  of  feeding.  It  has  been 
found  that  when  a  pig  is  fed  large  quantities  of  protein 
it  also  needs  large  quantities  of  water.  The  water  ap- 
parently is  necessary  in  protein  metabolism  as  well  as  to 
excrete  the  waste  products. 

Protein  Requirement. — The  following  cut  shows  the 
amount  of  digestible  crude  protein  required  by  market 
pigs  daily  per  100  pounds  live  weight,  for  maximum  and 
most  economical  production.  The  curve  starts  at  .6 


158 


SWINE 


pound  at  the  beginning  of  the  feeding  period,  and  rises 
to  .7  pound  during  the  first  seven  weeks.  Following  this 
it  declines  to  .6  during  four  weeks'  time,  then  maintains 
a  level  of  .65  pound  for  the  next  seven  weeks.  After  this 
the  greater  part  of  the  nitrogenous  feeds  is  removed  from 
the  ration  during  four  weeks'  time  and  the  pigs  are  fin- 
ished principally  on  corn  with  just  a  little  of  some  other 
feed  added. 


CUT    20;— PROTEIN    REQUIREMENT    OF    MARKET    PIGS. 

The1  amount  of  protein  shown  above  need  not  be  taken 
as  absolute,  but  should  be  modified  to  suit  the  length  of 
the  feeding  period.  As  practiced  by  the  writer,  the  mar- 
ket pig  is  fed  for  six  months,  from  the  third  month  to 
the  ninth  month  of  its  life,  according  to  this  formula. 
Thus  the  pig  is  eight  months  old  at  the  close  of  the  feed- 
ing period.  With  this  practice  the  last  eight  weeks  is 
considered  the  fattening  period,  and  the  first  18  weeks 
the  growing  period.  This  growing  period  is  divided  in 
the  middle  by  a  period  of  four  weeks,  during  which  the 
protein  curve  drops  for  the  purpose  of  reducing  the  factor 
of  waste.  With  a  short  growing  period  a  continuous  in- 
crease during  the  period  would  be  all  right,  but  when  a 
comparatively  large  quantity  of  protein  is  fed,  for  a  con- 
siderable length  of  time  under  practical  conditions,  the 
tactor  of  waste  apparently  becomes  so  great  that  feeding 
is  relatively  more  unprofitable. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  quantity  of  protein 


AUTHOR'S  METHOD  OF  FEEDING 


159 


given  above  is  intended  for  growing  and  fattening  pigs 
that  are  to  be  finished  for  market  by  the  time  they  are 
eight  months  old.  Pigs  intended  for  breeding  purposes 
should  not  be  fattened  to  the  same  extent  that  market 
hogs  are  and  should  not  be  fed  so  much  protein  because 
this  sets  up  the  factor  of  waste,  making  them  more  un- 
profitable afterwards.  The  protein  requirement  of  such 
pigs  is  shown  in  the  following  cut: 


CUT  20A.— PROTEIN  REQUIREMENT    OF   BREEDING    PIGS. 

This  curve  starts  with  pigs  at  the  same  age  as  the  one 
above  and  takes  them  past  a  year  of  age.  About  this 
time  it  is  assumed  that  the  young  sows  will  farrow  and 
must  be  fed  with  reference  to  this.  After  farrowing  and 
raising  their  litters  they  will  be  considerably  reduced  in 
weight  and  can  then  be  started  on  a  somewhat  higher 
quantity  of  protein  than  they  received  immediatley  before 
farrowing.  This  then  should  be  reduced  again  to  about 
2  pound  or  less  at  two  years  of  age  when  they  reach 
maturity. 

A  pig  seems  to  be  very  sensitive  to  the  amount  of  pro- 
tein fed,  especially  during  early  age,  and  is  very  easily 
stunted  by  an  excess.  It  may  even  be  overfed  before  it 
is  weaned  so  that  its  final  live  weight  will  not  be  as  great 
as  it  would  be  if  it  were  not  overfed  at  this  time. 


160 


SWINE 


CUT    21.— CARBOHYDRATE    REQUIREMENT    OF    MARKET    PIGS. 

Carbohydrate  Requirement. — The  above  cut  shows  the 
amount  of  digestible  carbohydrate  required  by  pigs  that 
are  being  fed  for  market.  It  will  be  noticed  that  pigs 
from  the  third  to  the  sixth  month  of  age,  inclusive, 
should  have  from  2.4  to  2.8  pounds  of  digestible  carbo- 
hydrate daily  per  hundred  pounds  of  live  weight.  Dur- 
ing the  last  eight  weeks  of  the  feeding  period  the  pigs 
may  be  put  on  nearly  full  feed  on  a  ration  that  is  pri- 
marily carbonaceous  in  nature.  Pigs  with  a  low  degree 
of  vitality  cannot  take  this  much. 

Pigs  intended  for  breeding  purposes  should  have  less 
carbohydrate  than  those  that  are  fed  for  market,  as 
shown  in  the  cut  inserted  below : 


CUT  21A.— CARBOHYDRATE   REQUIREMENT  OF   BREEDING    PIGS. 

The  latter  part  of  this  curve  as  well  as  the  latter  part 
of  the  protein  curve  showing  the  protein  requirement  of 
breeding  pigs  have  not  as  yet  been  as  thoroughly  worked 
out  as  the  other  points  mentioned,  but  are  believed  to  be 
essentially  correct. 


AUTHOR'S  METHOD  OF  FEEDING  161 

Ether  Extract  Requirement. — As  determined  by  the 
writer,  pigs  will  make  larger  gains  if  they  are  given  a 
little  more  fat  in  their  ration  than  ordinarily  is  present 
in  the  common  feeds  of  the  farm.  Soy-beans  contain  more 
than  the  ordinary  amount  of  fat  or  ether  extract;  conse- 
quently if  this  feed  is  used  in  a  ration,  it  will  be  better 
than  when  other  feeds  not  containing  as  large  a  quantity 
of  fat  are  used. 

Mineral  Matter  Requirement. — Since  the  amount  of 
mineral  matter  present  in  the  soil,  in  the  water,  in  the 
vegetation  and  in  different  feeds,  as  previously  stated,  is 
so  decidedly  variable,  and  since  there  is  no  standard  for 
the  requirement  of  mineral  nutrients  by  the  pig,  it  seems 
necessary,  in  order  to  get  best  results  in  pig  feeding,  to 
give  the  pig  free  access  to  a  variety  of  mineral  substances 
so  that  he  can  supply,  according  to  the  dictates  of  his 
appetite,  whatever  is  deficient  by  way  of  mineral  sub- 
stances in  his  feed.  In  order  to  supply  these  mineral 
substances  the  results  on  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station 
farm  seem  to  be  quite  satisfactory  if  the  pig  is  given  free 
access  to  salt,  charcoal,  ground  lime  stone,  bone  meal, 
wood  ashes,  clean  soil  and  soft  coal  cinders.  These, 
with  the  exception  of  the  last  two,  are  kept  in  different 
compartments  of  a  trough  before  the  pigs  at  all  times. 

THE  PIG  AS  A  MACHINE. 

In  order  to  illustrate  further  the  efficiency  of  the  animal 
body  as  a  machine  for  converting  feed  into  pork,  atten- 
tion as  directed  to  a  farm  operation  with  which  all  are 
familiar. 

Suppose  a  field  of  wheat  in  the  shock  that  is  to  be 
threshed  with  a  steam  thresher  and  sheaves  of  wheat  are 
to  be  used  with  which  to  fire  the  engine.  After  the  engine 


162  SWINE 

has  been  fired  and  everything  is  in  readiness  to  begin 
threshing,  this  may  be  compared  to  the  process  of  swine 
feeding.  The  wheat  that  is  used  in  the  engine  for  fuel 
represents  the  feed  .used  by  the  pig  for  maintenance  and 
to  furnish  the  energy  for  digesting  and  assimilating  the 
feed,  also  to  excrete  the  waste  products.  The  grain  that 
goes  into  the  sack  represents  the  gains  made;  the  grain 
that  blows  over,  the  waste;  and  the  straw,  the  feces. 
When  the  machine  is  run  empty,  the  wheat  used  as  fuel 
in  the  engine  represents  the  actual  quantity  of  feed  used 
for  maintenance,  after  eliminating  the  factor  of  waste. 
As  grain  is  fed  into  the  machine,  more  fuel  is  required  in 
the  engine;  some  to  handle  the  material  that  is  being  fed 
into  the  separator,  besides  that  to  run  the  machine  itself. 
When  grain  is  fed  into  the  separator  only  in  small 
quantities,  the  effectiveness  of  the  machine  is  greatest; 
that  is,  under  these  conditions  more  of  the  grain  is  saved. 
As  the  machine  is  being  crowded  toward  the  upper  limit 
of  its  capacity,  more  grain  is  left  in  the  straw,  and  more 
passes  across  the  sieve,  because  a  larger  part  of  the  sieve 
becomes  clogged,  allowing  a  smaller  quantity  of  grain  to 
pass  through  into  the  sack  or  wagon.  More  grain  is  also 
required  to  furnish  the  necessary  fuel  in  .the  engine.  Now, 
as  the  upper  limit  is  reached  so  that  the  engine  is  pulling 
a  full  load  and  the  sieves  have  become  largely  clogged 
so  that  a  considerable  portion  of  the  grain  goes  into  the 
straw  stack,  and  the  amount  of  grain  fed  into  the  sep- 
arator is  again  -reduced,  the  machine  gradually  becomes 
more  effective ;  that  is,  as  a  smaller  amount  of  grain  is  fed 
into  the  separator,  less  fuel  is  required  in  the  engine, 
more  grain  is  threshed  out  of  the  straw,  and  more  of  the 
material  that  has  clogged  the  sieve  is  gradually  rattled 
out,  allowing  more  of  the  grain  to  pass  through  into  the 


AUTHOR'S  METHOD  OF  FEEDING  168 

sack.  But  it  takes  considerable  time  for  all  the  material 
that  has  clogged  the  meshes  of  the  sieve  to  shake  out  so 
as  to  allow  the  machine  to  become  as  effective  as  it  was 
at  the  beginning.  From  this  it  is  seen  that  the  grain 
thresher  is  more  effective  when  not  crowded  to  its  fullest 
capacity.  It  is  also  more  effective  when  the  moderate 
quantity  thus  handled  is  approached  from  below  than 
when  it  is  approached  from  above.  These  same  processes 
can  be  traced  in  pig  feeding,  only  that  it  takes  longer  in 
case  of  the  pig  to  eliminate  the  factor  of  waste. 

Beyond  a  certain  point,  depending  on  the  relation  of 
maintenance  ration  to  full  ration,  the  animal  body  is  more 
economical  with  the  feed  eaten  when  it  is  fed  a  smaller 
quantity  than  when  it  is  fed  a  larger  amount  of  feed,  be- 
cause the  factor  of  waste,  due  to  excessive  feeding  and  the 
tendency  toward  nitrogen  equilibrium,  which  is  present 
under  prevailing  conditions,  in  the  animal  body  becomes 
larger  as  the  amount  of  feed  eaten  is  increased.  Add  to 
this  the  great  quantity  of  feed  required  for  digestion  and 
excretion  of  the  waste  products,  and  it  is  readily  seen 
how  the  ration  becomes  less  effective  with  the  increase 
in  the  amount  of  feed  eaten.  On  account  of  this  tendency 
toward  nitrogen  equilibrium,  and  the  difficulty  with  which 
the  factor  of  waste  is  eliminated,  the  ration  fed  to  the 
animal  is  more  effective  when  the  proper  quantity  of  feed 
has  been  approached  from  below  than  when  it  has  been 
approached  from  above,  similar  to  the  grain  thresher. 

VARIETY  IN  RATION. 

It  is  important  that  the  ration  for  swine  be  made  up  of 
more  than  one  or  two  feeds.  While  a  perfectly  balanced 
ration,  so  far  as  protein  and  carbohydrate  are  concerned, 
can  be  made  up  from  two  feeds,  as  corn  and  soy-beans 


164  SWINE 

for  instance,  such  a  ration  is  never  as  good  as  one  that 
contains  more  feeds.  The  greater  the  number  of  feeds 
the  better  the  ration.  This  is  true  because  different  feeds 
contain  different  materials,  some  of  which  probably  are 
not  as  yet  differentiated  from  the  regular  classes  of  nutri- 
ents, but  at  the  same  time  are  necessary  in  the  metabo- 
lism of  the  pig.  In  order  to  be  sure  to  supply  these  as 
nearly  as  possible,  and  in  order  to  make  the  ration  pala- 
table, it  is  always  better  when  it  contains  a  large  number 
of  feeds  rather  than  a  small  number. 

THE  APPETITE  OF  THE  PIG. 

The  total  amount  of  digestible  nutrients  needed  by  a 
pig,  or  rather  the  total  amount  that  he  can  use  to  the  best 
advantage,  is  determined  very  largely  by  the  pig's  appe- 
tite. A  pig  that  is  put  on  full  feed  seemingly  will  not 
make  the  gains  in  live  weight  that  he  would  if  he  were  fed 
a  little  less  than  this.  However,  the  amount  of  feed  that 
will  be  eaten  depends  largely  upon  the  extent  to  which 
the  pig's  appetite  has  been  developed,  which  is  deter- 
mined by  the  way  he  has  been  bred  and  by  his  ability  to 
use  the  digested  material.  The  latter  depends  upon  vari- 
ous conditions.  While  the  quantities  of  digestible  nutri- 
ents specified  previously  are  given  as  the  amounts  neces- 
sary to  produce  the  best  results,  it  is  not  necessarily  true 
that  all  pigs  will  eat  this  quantity.  In  fact,  under  certain 
conditions,  they  could  not  eat  this  much  under  any  con- 
sideration. At  other  times  this  function  of  the  pig  will  be 
developed  to  such  an  extent  that  he  may  use  to  the  best 
advantage  even  considerably  more.  In  order  to  develop 
a  pig's  appetite  he  should  never  be  overfed.  If  once  he  is 
overfed,  he  will  probably  never  again  eat  as  much  as  he 
would  if  this  had  not  happened.  Furthermore,  the 


AUTHOR'S  METHOD  OF  FEEDING  165 

amounts  of  feed  that  can  be  consumed  profitably  by  a  pig 
will  depend  very  largely  upon  the  character  of  the  ration. 
A  bulky  ration  fed  during  the  early  part  of  a  pig's  life  will 
increase  his  capacity  so  that  later  in  life  he  can  eat  more 
than  would  be  possible  if  he  received  only  concentrated 
feeds  at  first.  Again,  if  too  much  protein  is  fed  early  in 
life,  it  will  limit  the  total  amount  of  feed  that  is  eaten 
and  therefore  allow  the  capacity  of  the  pig  to  be  relatively 
decreased. 

Two  bunches  of  pigs  may  eat  the  same  quantity  of  feed 
at  the  same  time  and  may  produce  entirely  different  re- 
sults. This  may  be  due  to  the  extent  to  which  the  appe- 
tite of  the  pigs  in  the  different  lots  has  been  developed. 
If  one  bunch  of  pigs  eats  its  feed  with  greater  avidity,  it 
will  do  better  on  the  feed  than  the  other  bunch  that  has 
practically  all  it  can  eat  on  the  same  quantity  of  feed. 
That  is,  the  margin  above  the  amount  of  feed  that  is 
given,  to  the  amount  that  would  be  eaten  if  the  pigs  were 
put  on  full  feed,  is  of  considerable  importance.  As  already 
stated,  a  pig  will  .make  better  gains  if  fed  small  enough 
quantities  so  that  he  will  leave  the  trough  with  his  appe- 
tite not  quite  satisfied.  At  the  same  time  he  should  be  so 
fed  and  trained  that  he  will  eat  enough  for  maximum  de- 
velopment. Other  factors  that  exert  a  considerable  in- 
fluence on  the  extent  and  economy  of  the  gains  made  are 
the  influence  of  environment  and  the  influence  of  previous 
generations. 

INFLUENCE  OF  ENVIRONMENT. 

The  influence  exerted  by  environment  upon  animals  is 
of  considerable  importance.  A  pig  will  behave  in  accord- 
ance with  the  conditions  under  which  he  is  kept.  If  he  is 
allowed  to  roam  over  a  large  pasture  he  will,  if  conditions 


166  SWINE 

are  favorable  and  if  he  has  been  properly  trained,  take 
sufficient  exercise  to  stimulate  the  various  functions  of 
the  animal  body  to  their  greatest  usefulness.  That  is, 
the  pig  under  such  conditions  will  be  able  to  eat  and  di- 
gest more,  and  will  be  able  to  use  the  digested  material 
to  better  advantage,  than  if  such  exercise  were  not  taken. 
The  amount  of  exercise  taken  by  pigs  also  is  determined 
very  largely  by  various  conditions  and  is  also  a  matter  of 
training.  It  is  thought  that  the  principal  means  by  which 
exercise  increases  the  development  of  the  pig  is  that  it  in- 
creases the  amount  of  oxygen  taken  in  and  also  stimu- 
lates the  digestive  organs  to  better  action. 

If  a  pig  is  kept  in  small  "quarters"  and  cannot  take  the 
necessary  exercise,  he  will  be  likely  to  lie  around  a  great 
deal,  and  lying  in  the  position  that  a  pig  naturally  takes 
when  out  of  "order,"  namely,  on  his  abdomen,  inter- 
feres greatly  with  proper  respiration.  This  cuts  off 
to  a  large  extent  one  important,  if  not  the  most  im- 
portant, food  supply,  namely, — oxygen.  .The  pig  under 
such  conditions,  therefore,  cannot  utilize  as  much  feed 
as  he  could  under  conditions  where  plenty  of  exercise 
is  obtained,  and  cannot  make  as  large  or  as  econom- 
ical gains.  Furthermore,  he  will  not  be  as  healthy 
and  may  very  easily  be  overcome  by  diseases  of  various 
kinds. 

If  pigs  are  changed  from  lots  where  they  have  had  con- 
siderable exercise  to  lots  where  they  do  not  have  so  much, 
their  feed  must  be  correspondingly  reduced.  Hence  they 
will  also  make  smaller  and  usually  more  expensive  gains. 
If  the  weather  conditions  are  such,  as  for  instance,  when 
it  is  very  cold,  that  the  pig  does  not  take  the  usual 
amount  of  exercise,  the  ration  should  also  be  reduced 
correspondingly.  Other  conditions  of  environment  may 
also  necessitate  changes  in  rations. 


AUTHOR'S  METHOD  OF  FEEDING  167 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  a  pig  is  subject  to  the  environment 
under  which  he  is  kept  and  is  always  subject  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  to  habit  or  training.  If  a  pig  has  gotten 
into  the  habit  of  taking  considerable  exercise,  he  will  be 
a  much  better  pig  than  if  he  is  trained  to  keep  quiet.  This, 
of  course,  is  more  important  during  early  life  than  during 
the  fattening  stage.  However,  it  is  believed  that  even  a 
fattening  hog  will  do  better  with  a  certain  amount  of 
exercise. 

INFLUENCE  OF  PREVIOUS  GENERATIONS. 

Under  this  head  may  be  considered  very  properly  the 
subject  of  breeding  in  so  far  as  it  applies  to  the  acquisi- 
tion of  different  characteristics.  It  is  generally  recog- 
nized that  if  pigs  are  selected  and  bred  for  a  number  of 
years  along  certain  lines,  they  will  produce  results  accord- 
ingly. That  is,  if  pigs  are  bred  to  a  small  type,  they  will 
not  make  as  large  gains  as  those  that  are  bred  to  a  larger 
type.  Again,  certain  conditions  produce  hogs  of  the  fat  or 
lard  type,  while  other  conditions  produce  bacon  hogs,  etc. 
The  influence  of  various  conditions  under  which  previous 
generations  were  kept  is  then  transmitted  to  the  offspring 
in  the  form  of  acquired  characteristics,  and  a  pig  will  pro- 
duce results  largely  in  accordance  with  the  manner  in 
which  he  has  been  bred. 

The  influence  exerted  by  the  immediate  ancestors  is  not 
so  generally  recognized.  It,  however,  seems  to  be  a  fact 
that  the  manner  in  which  a  pig  develops  depends  very 
largely  upon  the  conditions  under  which  the  dam  was 
kept  as  well  as  on  the  manner  in  which  she  was  fed.  A 
sow  that  has  been  improperly  developed  is  not  likely  to 
produce  either  as  many -or  as  good  pigs  as  one  that  was 
properly  developed.  The  sire  also  exerts  his  influence. 


168  SWINE 

FEEDING  TOO  MUCH  AND  TOO  LITTLE. 

There  is  great  danger  of  over-feeding  a  pig.  If  once  he 
is  over-fed,  he  will  never,  as  already  stated,  eat  as  much 
feed  thereafter  as  he  otherwise  would.  Furthermore,  the 
effect  of  over-feeding  is  very  great  and  carried  along  for 
a  considerable  length  of  time  in  the  form  of  the  factor 
of  waste. 

The  period  of  greatest  growth  is  with  the  young  ani- 
mal. As  the  animal  gets  older  he  gradually  loses  this 
power  of  growth.  The  feed  required  for  maintenance,  as 
already  learned,  is  a  constant  quantity,  and  in  general  as 
a  pig  gets  older,  he  eats  a  smaller  quantity  of  feed  daily 
per  hundred  pounds  live  weight.  In  order  to  get  the  best 
possible  results,  a  pig  must  eat  as  much  as  he  can  use 
to  the  best  advantage.  If  too  little  feed  is  consumed,  the 
factor  of  maintenance,  or  the  feed  required  for  mainte- 
nance, becomes  relatively  greater  and  consumes  more  of 
the  ration.  If  the  pig  is  fed  too  small  a  quantity  when  he 
is  young,  he  cannot  eat  as  much  later  in  life  as  is  consist- 
ent with  the  largest  and  most  economical  gains,  for  vari- 
ous reasons.  First,  he  naturally  eats  a  smaller  quantity 
of  feed  as  he  gets  older;  consequently,  if  he  is  not  given 
as  much  as  he  can  use  profitably  when  he  is  young  and 
able  to  digest  a  large  quantity,  the  period  is  passed  during 
which  he  can  consume  a  large  quantity  of  feed.  Secondly, 
if  he  is  fed  either  too  small  a  quantity  of  feed  when  young, 
or  if  the  ration  is  fed  in  too  concentrated  a  form,  or  if  too 
much  protein  is  fed  (which  is  very  largely  the  limiting 
factor  because  the  part  of  his  internal  mechanism  which 
handles  this  nutrient  cannot  handle  more  than  a  limited 
quantity),  the  capacity  of  the  pig's  digestive  apparatus 
gradually  adapts  itself  to  the  quantity  of  feed  consumed. 
It  therefore  under  such  conditions  becomes  relatively 


AUTHOR'S  METHOD  OF  FEEDING  169 

smaller  so  that  the  pig  cannot  consume  as  much  feed 
later  in  life  as  is  consistent  with  the  most  profitable  re- 
sults to  the  feeder. 

Therefore,  if  the  largest  and  most  economical  gains  are 
to  be  obtained,  the  pig  must  be  fed  as  much  early  in  life 
as  he  can  use  to  the  best  advantage,  and  at  the  same  time 
be  fed  a  ration  of  such  form  that  the  capacity  of  the  di- 
gestive apparatus  will  be  relatively  increased  so  that  later 
in  life,  when  he  naturally  would  eat  a  smaller  quantity,  he 
may  be  induced  to  eat  more. 

LARGE  GAINS  AND  ECONOMICAL  GAINS. 

It  is  commonly  supposed  that  the  larger  the  gains  made 
by  pigs,  the  greater  is  the  profit  from  such  feeding  opera- 
tions. This,  however,  is  not  necessarily  true.  The  two  do 
not  always  go  hand  in  hand.  This  is  usually  true  for 
short  periods  of  feeding,  but  not  always  in  the  long  run ; 
for,  if  a  pig  be  fed  more  than  he  can  use  to  the  best 
advantage,  he  will  establish  a  high  factor  of  waste,  which 
will  make  the  gains  more  expensive,  even  though  they  are 
as  large  as  could  possibly  be  obtained. 

In  order  to  derive  the  greatest  profit,  pigs  must  be  fed 
so  that  the  gains  are  both  large  and  economical.  A  pig 
should  not  be  allowed  to  establish  a  high  factor  of  waste, 
and  the  feeds  should  be  selected  so  that  they  are  best 
adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  animal.  That  is,  during  the 
growing  period  the  pig  should  have  considerable  protein, 
as  well  as  the  other  nutrients,  so  it  can  add  lean  meat  to 
its  body  and  gain  in  bone  and  fat.  Later  in  life,  when 
the  factor  of  waste  has  become  high  and  the  pig 
should  fatten,  the  gains  can  be  made  more  economi- 
cally on  carbohydrate  feeds;  but,  at  the  same  time,  suf- 
ficient protein  should  be  fed  to  stimulate  the  digestive  and 


170  SWINE 

assimilative  functions  to  their  greatest  and  most  econom- 
ical action  as  well  as  to  supply  protein  metabolism. 

SELECTION  OF  FEEDS. 

Feeds  should  be  selected  primarily  with  the  end  in  view 
of  furnishing  the  proper  quantity  of  digestible  nutrients 
in  a  palatable  form  as  follows:  Water,  protein,  carbo- 
hydrate, ether  extract,  mineral  matter  and  also  bulk. 
While  some  feeds  may  have  values  other  than  those  of 
the  content  of  digestible  nutrients,  it  is  considered  that  if 
a  pig  is  properly  fed  these  become  of  minor  importance. 
Home-grown  feeds  should  be  used  where  possible,  but 
when  these  are  not  available  commercial  feeds  may  be 
substituted.  While  many  of  the  commercial  feeds  are  all 
right  and  as  good,  perhaps,  as  those  that  may  be  grown 
on  the  farm,  the  profit  in  general  is  greater  from  home- 
grown feeds.  Furthermore,  the  supply  of  commercial 
feed  is  limited  and  available  only  to  a  comparatively 
small  number  of  feeders. 

Pasture  should  always  be  made  use  of  whenever  avail- 
able because  it  not  only  furnishes  feeds  in  the  most  pala- 
table and  cheapest  form,  but  also  mineral  matter,  and  pro- 
vides exercise.  The  latter  perhaps  is  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance and  when  not  available  on  pasture  it  should  be 
supplied  by  some  other  means. 

A  variety  of  feeds  should  be  grown  which  should  be 
properly  selected  from  the  different  groups,  being  sure  to 
include  enough  of  the  nitrogenous  concentrates  to  supply 
the  necessary  amounts  of  protein  for  the  proper  develop- 
ment of  the  pig.  Some  of  the  carbonaceous  concentrates 
such  as  corn,  rye,  barley  or  rice,  may  be  grown  in  almost 
any  country  where  swine  are  produced.  Nitrogenous 
roughages  such  as  clover  and  alfalfa  may  also  be  grown 
in  almost  all  places.  Among  the  nitrogenous  concentrates 


AUTHOR'S  METHOD  OF  FEEDING  171 

skim  milk  may  be  secured  almost  anywhere,  and  soy 
beans  or  cow  peas  can  be  grown  in  the  warmer  climates, 
while  Canada  field  peas  will  thrive  in  cooler  countries. 

The  carbonaceous  feeds  in  general  must  be  used  to 
make  up  the  carbohydrate  part  of  the  ration,  and  the 
nitrogenous  feeds  to  furnish  the  bulk  of  the  protein.  All 
carbonaceous  feeds  contain  some  protein  and  almost  all 
nitrogenous  feeds  contain  some  carbohydrate;  conse- 
quently, in  the  selection  of  feeds  for  a  ration  they  should 
be  combined  in  such  quantities  that  the  proper  amount  of 
digestible  nutrients  is  supplied. 

Water  is  found  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  all  feeds. 
Those  classified  as  dry  feeds  usually  contain  only  a  small 
quantity,  about  8  to  18  per  cent.  Other  feeds  such  as 
liquid  feeds  and  succulent  feeds  contain  as  high  as  85  to 
90  per  cent.  However,  since  these  sources  of  water,  ex- 
cept that  of  the  liquid  feeds,  are  not  sufficient,  the  pigs 
must  be  fed  water  directly  as  such.  In  order  to  get  best 
results  it  is  undoubtedly  necessary,  as  shown  by  experi- 
mental data,  to  feed  the  right  quantity  of  water  as  well 
as  the  right  quantity  of  the  other  nutrients. 

While  the  pig  is  an  animal  primarily  adapted  to  the 
use  of  concentrates,  and  under  five  or  six  months  of  age 
apparently  cannot  assimilate  as  much  as  he  can  digest, 
best  results  are  obtained  if  he  is  not  fed  more  than  he 
can  finally  use  for  the  construction  of  body  tissue  and  for 
necessary  energy  and  heat  production.  In  order  to  limit 
the  nutrients  to  the  amount  that  the  pig  can  most  profit- 
ably use,  roughages  may  be  introduced  into  the  ration 
at  this  time.  These  serve  a  double  purpose :  First,  they 
satisfy  the  appetite  of  the  pig;  second,  they  have  a 
tendency  to  increase  his  capacity  so  that  later  in  life, 
when  he  otherwise  would  not  eat  as  much  as  he  could 


172  SWINE 

profitably  use,  he  will  be  able  to  consume  a  larger  quan- 
tity of  nutrients.  Roughages  may  also  be  used  in  con- 
siderable quantities  by  pigs  that  are  simply  being  main- 
tained. In  such  a  case  these  feeds  maintain  the  capacity 
of  the  digestive  apparatus  and  satisfy  the  appetite.  If 
too  much  concentrated  feed,  and  especially  protein  or 
crude  protein,  is  eaten,  the  factor  of  waste  is  set  up  which 
makes  feeding  much  more  unprofitable  and  may  even 
prove  fatal  or  result  in  developing  permanent  runts. 

METHOD  OF  CALCULATING  RATIONS. 

According  to  the  method  of  calculating  rations  here 
outlined,  the  pig  is  fed  certain  definite  quantities  of  di- 
gestible nutrients  daily  per  hundred  pounds  live  weight, 
aside  from  the  fact  that  it  is  necessary  to  maintain  a  cer- 
tain relation  between  the  concentrates  and  roughages  of 
the  ration. 

Method  of  Procedure. — As  an  example  for  calculating 
a  ration,  which  was  also  taken  from  manuscript  that  was 
being  prepared  for  an  Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  circular,  the  following  may  be  taken :  Suppose 
that  a  bunch  of  pigs  were  to  be  two  months  old  and 
were  to  weigh  685  pounds,  and  that  the  curves  in  the  pre- 
ceding cuts  were  to  show  that  at  this  time  the  pigs  re- 
quired daily  per  hundred  pounds  live  weight,  12  pounds  of 
water,  .6  pound  of  digestible  crude  protein,  and  2.2  pounds 
of  digestible  carbohydrate.  Multiplying  these  quantities 
respectively  by  the  total  live  weight,  namely,  685  pounds, 
and  pointing  off  to  the  proper  figure,  we  find  that  this 
bunch  of  pigs  will  require  a  total  of  82.2  pounds  of  water, 
4.11  pounds  of  digestible  crude  protein,  and  15.07  pounds 
of  digestible  carbohydrate  per  day.  Suppose  that  alfalfa, 
corn,  barley,  skim  milk,  soy  beans,  and  water  are  to  be 


AUTHOR'S  METHOD  OF  FEEDING 


173 


used  to  make  up  this  ration.  To  facilitate  matters  a  table 
should  be  constructed  specifying  the  amounts  of  digest- 
ible nutrients  present  in  these  feeds  from  one  to  nine 
pounds  inclusive,  as  follows: 

DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  PER  POUND  FEED. 


CORN. 

BARLEY. 

Lbs. 

Wat. 

Pro. 

Car. 

E.  E. 

M.M. 

Wat. 

Pro. 

Car. 

E.  E. 

M.  M. 

LbB. 

1 

.13 

.07 

.66 

.03 

.01 

.11 

.08 

.65 

.02 

.03 

1 

2 

.26 

.14 

1.32 

.06 

.02 

.22 

.16 

1.30 

.04 

.06 

2 

3 

.39 

.21 

1.98 

.09 

.03 

.33 

.24 

1.95 

.06 

.09 

8 

4 

.52 

.28 

2.64 

.12 

.04 

.44 

.32 

2.60 

.08 

.12 

4 

5 

.65 

.35 

3.30 

.15 

.05 

.55 

.40 

3.25 

.10 

.15 

K 

G 

.78 

.42 

3.96 

.18 

.06 

.66 

.48 

3.90 

.12 

.18 

6 

7 

.91 

.49 

4.62 

.21 

.07 

.77 

.56 

4.55 

.14 

.21 

7 

8 

1.04 

.56 

5.28 

.24 

.08 

.88 

.64 

5.20 

.16 

.24 

8 

9 

1.17 

.63 

5.94 

.27 

.09 

.99 

.72 

5.85 

.18 

.27 

9 

DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  PER  POUND  FEED. 


SOY   BEANS. 

SKIMMILK. 

ALFALFA. 

3 

3 

g 

a 

g 

3 

"0 

3 

? 

g 

3 

JT 

£ 

M 

g 

a 

g 

r* 

* 

g 

r* 

| 

f 

g 

.11 

.30 

.22 

.14 

.05 

.91 

.03 

.05 

.01 

.08 

.07 

.37 

.01 

.07 

.22 

.60 

.44 

.28 

.10 

1.82 

.06 

.10 

.02 

.16 

.14 

.74 

.02 

.14 

.33 

.90 

.66 

.42 

.15 

2.73 

.09 

.15 

.03 

.24 

.21 

1.11 

.03 

.21 

.44 

1.20 

.88 

.56 

.20 

3.64 

.12 

.20 

.04 

.32 

.28 

1.48 

.04 

.28 

.55 

1.50 

1.10 

.70 

.25 

4.55 

.15 

.25 

.05 

.40 

.35 

1.85 

.05 

.35 

.66 

1.80 

1.32 

.84 

.30 

5.46 

.18 

.30 

.06 

.48 

.42 

2.22 

.06 

.42 

.77 

2.10 

1.54 

.98 

.35 

6.37 

.21 

.35 

.07 

.56 

.49 

2.59 

.07 

.49 

.88 

2.40 

1.76 

1.12 

.40 

7.28 

.24 

.40 

.08 

.64 

.56 

2.96 

.08 

.56 

.99 

2.80 

1.98 

1.26 

.45 

8.19 

.27 

.45 

.09 

.72 

.63 

3.33 

.09 

.63 

By  the  use  of  this  table  tenths  of  pounds,  unit  numbers 
of  pounds,  and  ten  times  unit  numbers  of  pounds  of  vari- 


174  SWINE 

ous  feeds  may  be  added  to  the  ration  by  reading  the  quan- 
tities of  nutrients  correctly  with  respect  to  the  decimal 
point.  To  get  the  nutrients  for  unit  numbers  of  pounds 
read  direct  as  given  in  the  table,  for  tenths  of  pounds  read 
with  the  decimal  point  one  place  to  the  left,  and  for  ten 
times  unit  numbers  read  with  the  decimal  point  one  place 
to  the  right.  This  simplifies  matters  by  eliminating  the 
multiplications  at  each  operation.  The  abbreviations  at 
the  heads  of  the  columns  in  the  preceding  tables  stand 
for  the  following:  Wat.,  Water;  Pro.,  Crude  Protein; 
Car.,  Carbohydrate;  E.  E.,  Ether  Extract,  and  M.  M., 
Mineral  Matter. 

Pigs  two  months  old  can  use  but  a  limited  quantity  of 
a  roughage  like  alfalfa ;  .consequently  in  making  up  this 
ration  not  much  can  be  used  at  this  time.  Suppose  that 
corn  and  barley  are  to  be  used  in  the  proportion  of  2  parts 
of  corn  to  1  part  of  barley,  and  that  but  a  limited  amount 
of  skim  milk  is  at  hand.  In  order  to  make  up  this  ration, 
then,  the  following  is  evolved : 

The  total  amount  of  nutrients  required  per  day  for  the 
bunch  of  pigs  weighing  685  pounds,  as  determined  above, 
is  as  follows : 

Water.          Protein.       Carbohydrate. 
82.2  4.11  15.07 

In  order  to  get  these  quantities  the  following  amounts 
of  feeds  are  necessary.  These  are  obtained  by  first  put- 
ting down  the  desired  amount  of  the  roughage  (alfalfa), 
with  its  water,  protein  and  carbohydrate;  then  the  car- 
bonaceous concentrates  (corn  and  barley)  and  the  skim 
milk.  Have  enough  of  these  so  that  the  carbohydrate 
when  added  will  be  nearly  equal  to  the  required  quantity. 
Next  list  the  nitrogeneous  concentrate  (soy  beans)  in 
sufficient  amount  to  bring  up  the  protein  as  well  as  the 


AUTHOR'S  METHOD  OF  FEEDING  175 

carbohydrate  to  the  required  amount.  If  this  does  not 
come  out  right  the  first  time,  it  can  easily  be  adjusted  by 
means  of  the  preceding  table.  When  this  is  done,  add 
sufficient  water  to  bring  up  this  part  of  the  ration  to  the 
standard : 

Water. 

Alfalfa 3  Ib.     =         .024 

Corn     10.0  Ib.     =       1.300 

Corn     2.0  Ib.     ==         .260 

Barley    6.0  Ib.     =         .660 

Skimmilk     .  .     40.0  Ib.     =    36.400 


38.644 

Soy  beans 5.0  Ib.     =         .550 

Soy   beans    2  Ib.     =         .022 


39.216  4.101 

Water     .  .     43.0  Ib.     =     43.0 


82.216  4.101  15.075 

The  above  mentioned  quantities  of  feed,  then,  namely : 

Alfalfa     1.0  Ib.       Skimmilk     40.0  Ib. 

Corn      13.1  Ib.        Soy     beans 6.3  Ib. 

Barley    6.6  Ib.        Water     48.2  Ib. 

should  be  fed  to  these  pigs  for  one  day  when  they  are  two 
months  old.  In  order  to  get  the  increase  specified  by  the 
curves  in  the  preceding  cuts,  under  "Requirement  of 
Nutrients,"  an  estimate  must  be  made  as  to  what  the  pigs 
will  weigh  at  the  close  of  the  week.  Suppose  that  it  is 
estimated  that  the  lot  will  gain  65  pounds  this  week,  mak- 
ing its  total  weight  at  the  close  of  the  week  750  pounds. 
This  estimated  live  weight  then  should  be  multiplied  by 
the  increased  quantities  that  are  necessary  at  the  end  of 
the  week  as  follows : 

Water.  Protein.  Carbohydrate. 

11.7  .615  2.22 

Multiplying  these  by  the  estimated  live  weight  the  fol- 
lowing is  obtained  as  the  requirement  of  nutrients  at  the 


176 


SWINE 


close  of  this  and  the  beginning  of  the  following  week  of 
the  feeding  period: 


Water. 
87.75 


Protein. 
4.6125 


Carbohydrate. 
16.65 


To  get  these  quantities,  take  the  total  amount  of  nutri- 
ents fed  at  the  beginning  of  the  week  and  add  enough 
feeds  so  that  the  nutrients  of  the  feeds  will  bring  the  total 
amount  up  to  the  quantity  stated  above,  which  is  required 
at  the  end  of  the  week.  Proceed  the  same  as  above, 
namely,  add  the  roughage  first,  the  carbonaceous  concen- 
trates next,  then  the  nitrogenous  concentrates,  and  lastly 
the  water.  By  so  doing  the  following  will  be  obtained : 


Alfalfa 
Corn  .. 
Corn  . . 
Barley 


.71b. 

1.0  lb. 

.1  lb. 

.61b. 


Soy   beans    1.0  lb. 

Soy   beans    .1  lb. 


Water 


5.2  lb.     = 


Water. 

82.216 
.056 
.130 
.013 
.066 

82.481 
.110 
.011 

82.602 
5.2 

87.802 


Pro- 
tein. 

4.101 
.049 
.070 
.007 
.048 

4.275 
.300 
.030 

4.605 

4.605 


Carbo- 
hydrate. 

15.075 
.259 


.390 

16.450 

.220 

.022 

16.692 


These  quantities  of  nutrients  correspond  very  closely 
to  those  above  that  were  calculated  as  the  requirement  of 
nutrients  at  this  time. 

The  above  mentioned  quantities  of  feed  that  were  used 
to  get  the  additional  nutrients  should  be  added  to  those 
fed  at  the  beginning  of  the  week,  and  the  totals  are  the 
quantities  to  be  fed  at  the  close  of  the  week.  By  adding 
these  the  following  are  obtained. 


Alfalfa     31b. 

Corn     12.0  lb. 

Barley     6.0  lb. 


Skimmilk     40.0  lb. 

Soy     beans 5.2  lb. 

Water    .  43.0  lb. 


AUTHOR'S  METHOD  OF  FEEDING  177 

This  is  the  total  quantity  to  be  fed  per  day  at  the  close 
of  the  week.  The  quantity  of  feed  fed  on  the  first  day  of 
the  week  may  gradually  be  varied  to  that  fed  on  the  last 
day.  Thus  there  will  be  a  constant  increase  fed  from 
day  to  day. 

To  determine  the  quantity  of  feed  necessary  for  a  bunch 
of  pigs  at  any  time  between  the  ages  of  two  months  and 
nine  months,  the  same  method  is  followed  as  given.  The 
vertical  lines  in  the  cuts  indicate  the  age  of  the  pigs  and 
the  stage  of  the  period  of  feeding.  The  point  at  which 
these  intersect  with  the  curves  for  the  various  nutrients 
indicates  the  amount  of  these  in  pounds  as  specified  by 
the  horizontal  lines.  Multiply  these  quantities  by  the 
total  live  weight  and  proceed  according  to  the  directions 
already  given. 

As  is  clearly  evident  this  method  of  feeding  is  intended 
for  pigs  that  have  been  well  fed  from  the  time  they 
learned  to  eat.  If  a  feeder  has  a  bunch  of  pigs  that  have 
not  been  well  fed,  it  may  be  necessary,  in  order  to  get 
the  best  results,  to  start  back  a  little  farther  than  at  the 
point  in  the  above  cuts,  pages  156  to  160,  indicated  by 
the  age  of  the  pigs  in  question. 

In  order  to  furnish  variety  and  get  large  and  econom- 
ical gains,  as  large  a  number  of  feeds  should  be  used  in 
the  ration  as  possible.  The  greater  the  number  of  feeds 
the  better  will  be  the  ration.  Of  course,  the  greater  the 
number  of  feeds,  the  greater  will  be  the  amount  oi  work 
in  calculating  the  ration.  In  the  above  calculated  ration 
corn  and  barley  are  used  for  the  sake  of  variety,  both  be- 
ing carbonaceous  concentrates.  The  proportion  of  these 
two  feeds  may  be  governed  to  some  extent  by  the 
amounts  available.  Skim  milk  is  likewise  a  feed  of  the 
same  class  as  soy  beans. 


178  SWINE 

The  alfalfa  is  used  primarily  for  furnishing  bulk.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  period,  with  the  pigs  two  months  of 
age,  they  will  not  be  able  to  use  a  very  large  quantity 
of  this.  As  they  grow,  however,  during  the  next  two  or 
three  months  they  will  be  able  to  take  more  and  the  quan- 
tity in  the  ration  should  be  increased  so  that  the  appetite 
of  the  pigs  is  nearly  satisfied.  After  four  or  five  months 
of  age  it  will  be  necessary  to  gradually  decrease  the 
alfalfa  in  order  to  make  room  for  the  gradually  increasing 
quantity  of  the  protein  and  carbohydrate  nutrients.  The 
reduction  in  the  amount  of  water  will  also  help  to  make 
possible  the  increase  in  protein  and  carbohydrate. 

If  the  alfalfa  above  mentioned  is  fed  in  the  form  of 
meal,  it  might  be  mixed  with  the  balance  of  the  feeds  in 
the  slop.  But  this  is  an  expensive  form  in  which  to  feed 
alfalfa.  In  the  summer  time  pigs  may  be  allowed  to  eat 
it  from  the  pasture.  In  winter  the  alfalfa  may  be  chopped 
as  fine  as  possible  with  an  ordinary  fodder  cutter,  and 
then  mixed  with  a  little  meal  and  sufficient  hot  water  or 
steam  to  thoroughly  wet  it.  This  will  be  eaten  very  read- 
ily if  fed  while  the  pigs  are  hungry.  However,  it  takes 
training  to  accustom  a  pig  to  eat  any  feed.  If  bran  is  used 
as  a  roughage,  it  may  be  mixed  into  the  slop. 

COMPOUNDING  RATIONS. 

This  is  a  subject  that  ordinarily  is  not  given  very  much 
consideration,  but  at  the  same  time  it  is  one  of  the  great- 
est importance.  One  of  the  advantages  that  is  usually 
accredited  to  ground  corn  as  compared  with  whole  corn 
should  be  accredited  to  the  subject  under  discussion, 
namely, — combining  the  feeds  of  a  ration.  This  permits  of 
a  better  distribution  of  the  protein  which  produces  better 
results ;  hence  ground  corn,  which  is  better  adapted  to  the 


AUTHOR'S  METHOD  OF  FEEDING  179 

purpose,  very  often  produces  better  results  than  whole 
corn.  If  an  excess  of  feed,  especially  of  protein,  is  fed, 
and  the  factor  of  waste  is  established,  it  is  decidedly 
harmful  both  to  the  pig  and  to  the  gains  in  live  weight 
that  may  be  made.  It  seems  to  be  a  comparatively  easy 
matter  to  feed  a  pig  to  death  on  nitrogenous  feeds.  This 
nutrient  very  often  is  found  in  feeds  that  are  highly  con- 
centrated in  this  regard  and  also  are  very  digestible,  thus 
enabling  a  pig  easily  to  eat  an  excess.  Furthermore,  a 
pig  has  the  power  to  digest  more  of  this  nutrient  than  he 
can  assimilate.  Consequently,  if  a  pig  is  put  on  full  feed 
on  nitrogenous  concentrates,  he  may  eat  enough  to  kill, 
or  at  least  seriously  to  injure  him.  If  he  eats  a  little  less, 
or  not  enough  to  kill  him,  he  may  eat  enough  so  that  he 
will  become  permanently  stunted  or  runty. 

If  nitrogenous  concentrates  are  fed  separately  to  a 
bunch  of  pigs,  those  that  get  to  the  trough  first,  or  those 
that  are  largest  and  strongest  and  can  crowd  out  the 
smaller  or  weaker  ones,  are  likely  to  eat  too  much.  Cases 
have  come  to  notice  where  breeders  thought  they  had  hog 
cholera  in  their  herds  when  probably  it  was  nothing  but 
over-feeding  on  protein  in  this  form.  It  was  noticed  that 
the  largest  and  best  pigs  were  the  ones  that  would  die. 
This  is  true,  because  they  are  the  ones  that  would  eat  the 
largest  quantity,  hence  get  the  greatest  excess,  which  re- 
sulted fatally. 

In  order  to  overcome  these  difficulties,  it  is  very  essen- 
tial that  each  pig  in  a  bunch  receive  its  proportionate 
share  of  the  ration,  especially  of  the  nitrogenous  concen- 
trates. For  this  reason  it  is  advised  that  the  feeds  of  a 
ration  be  combined  in  such  a  manner  that  this  difficulty 
is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  The  nitrogenous  concentrates 
should  be  diluted  with  the  carbonaceous  concentrates  as 


180  SWINE 

well  as  with  the  bulky  feeds  and  the  water.  In  this  con- 
nection, a  good  way  to  feed  is  to  grind  all  the  grains  that 
are  used  and  mix  these  with  the  liquid  feeds,  such  as  milk 
or  water,  into  a  slop.  If  this  also  contains  the  right  pro- 
portion of  roughages  to  put  the  pig  nearly  on  full  feed, 
and  at  the  same  time  have  no  excess  of  protein,  large  and 
economical  gains  will  be  obtained. 

The  compounding  of  the  ration  in  itself  does  not  need 
any  consideration  in  the  present  connection.  Therefore, 
any  means  that  may  be  adopted  by  which  the  individual 
pigs  in  a  lot  get  the  right  quantity  of  the  various  food 
nutrients  will  produce  desirable  results.  If  the  protein 
part  of  the  ration  can  be  properly  distributed  among  the 
individual  pigs  of  a  drove,  as  for  instance  soy  beans  or 
peas,  and  if  the  pig  can  be  induced  to  drink  the  right 
quantity  of  water,  then  the  carbohydrate  part  of  the  ra- 
tion, the  corn,  or  other  sort  of  grain,  may  be  fed  sep- 
arately. As  a  means  of  getting  a  good  distribution  of 
protein  in  the  form  of  soy  beans  or  peas,  it  is  suggested 
that  these  may  be  scattered  on  a  large  feeding  floor  or  on 
a  considerable  space  of  pasture,  and  the  drove  of  pigs  al- 
lowed free  access  to  them.  If  the  right  quantity  has  been 
weighed  out  and  given  to  the  bunch  of  pigs,  which  are  of 
equal  size  and  eat  with  the  same  rapidity,  this  will  be 
about  equally  distributed  because  while  the  individual 
pigs  are  hulling  and  grinding  this  feed,  all  have  a  fairly 
good  opportunity  to  get  their  proportionate  allowance. 
A  considerable  proportion  of  the  straw,  if  it  was  properly 
harvested  and  preserved,  will  also  be  eaten. 

GRINDING  GRAIN. 

Grinding  grain  is  a  subject  that  has  been  widely  dis- 
cussed and  also  has  been  the  cause  of  a  great  deal  of  ex- 
perimentation. It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  if  a  pig  is  fed 


AUTHOR'S   METHOD    OF   FEEDING  181 

ground  feed  in  the  form  of  slop,  he  does  not  masticate  it, 
but  simply  swallows  it.  If  ground  corn  then  is  fed,  and  if 
it  is  not  ground  into  fine  meal,  the  pig  will  simply  get 
the  particles  of  corn  into  his  stomach,  which  cannot  be  as 
readily  or  as  thoroughly  digested  as  would  be  the  case  if 
it  were  finely  ground.  The  pig,  in  masticating  his  own 
grain,  will  usually  reduce  it  to  a  fine  meal.  Thus  if  grain 
is  to  be  ground,  it  should  be  ground  finely. 

Effect  on  the  Distribution  of  Protein. — In  general  the 
results  seem  to  indicate  that  ground  grain  produces 
slightly  better  results  than  whole  grain.  As  already 
stated,  one  of  the  principal  reasons  for  this  is  that  when 
ground  grain  is  fed  in  the  form  of  slop,  the  protein  part 
of  the  ration,  which  under  such  conditions  is  mixed  with 
these,  is  more  evenly  distributed. 

Effect  on  Palatability. — This  is  another  consideration 
which  should  be  taken  up  in  connection  with  the  feeding 
of  ground  and  whole  grain.  As  already  pointed  out,  the 
pig  during  the  early  part  of  his  life,  or  under  five  or  six 
months  of  age,  can  eat  and  also  digest  more  than  he  can 
properly  assimilate.  Later  in  life,  or  after  six  months  of 
age,  the  difficulty  is  that  he  does  not  eat  enough,  or  as 
much  as  he  can  digest  and  assimilate  to  the  best  advan- 
tage. The  method,  then,  according  to  which  grains  are 
prepared  has  considerable  influence  on  the  amount  of  feed 
that  may  be  eaten.  This  apparently  has  a  greater  influ- 
ence than  the  fact  that  such  grain  has  been  ground  or  not 
ground.  Another  influence  exerted  by  the  grinding  of 
corn,  then,  as  well  as  of  other  grains,  is  in  rendering  it 
more  or  less  palatable. 

Any  form  in  which  grain  can  be  fed  so  that  the  pig 
will  eat  more  nearly  the  right  quantity,  in  accordance 
with  that  which  he  can  use  to  the  best  advantage,  will 


182  SWINE 

produce  the  best  results.  If  a  young  pig  on  full  feed  will 
eat  more  of  ground  grain  than  of  whole  grain,  that  is,  if 
the  ground  grain  is  more  palatable  than  the  whole  grain, 
and  if  a  pig  of  such  an  age  already  eats  enough  of  whole 
grain,  then  the  ground  grain  under  such  conditions,  would 
be  a  decided  disadvantage,  for  the  pig  would  eat  too  much. 
However,  if  he  were  given  the  right  quantity  grinding 
would  then  be  an  advantage  because  the  ration  would  be 
more  palatable  and  would  be  eaten  with  greater  relish. 
In  other  words,  the  pig  would  be  more  hungry  when  leav- 
ing the  trough,  consequently  would  use  what  he  had 
eaten  to  better  advantage  than  if  he  were  fed  the  same 
feed  in  such  form  that  his  appetite  was  satisfied  when 
he  had  finished  eating. 

Later  in  life  the  pig,  when  ordinarily  he  eats  too  small 
a  quantity,  if  the  ration  can  be  made  more  palatable  by 
grinding,  it  is  much  better  because  the  quantity  of  feed 
eaten  at  this  time  is  an  important  factor.  The  more  a  pig 
may  be  induced  to  eat  and  to  eat  with  relish,  after  pass- 
ing the  time  during  which  he  can  eat  too  much,  the 
greater  and  more  economical  will  be  the  gains  that  he 
will  make. 

Effect  on  Water  Supply. — Another  influence  of  consid- 
erable magnitude  in  the  grinding  of  grain  is  in  the  amount 
of  water  supplied  to  the  pig.  During  the  winter,  when 
the  pig  ordinarily  does  not  drink  enough  water,  he  may 
be  directly  benefited  by  ground  grain  because  this  is 
usually  fed  in  the  form  of  a  slop.  Thus  the  pig  is  com- 
pelled to  drink  water  and  take  more  nearly  the  right 
quantity. 

Hard  and  Small  Seeds. — Thus  it  is  seen  that  while  the 
grinding  of  grain  may  not  have  any  influence  in  itself, 
it  does  exert  considerable  influence  in  various  directions 


AUTHOR'S  METHOD  OF  FEEDING  183 

as  already  noted.  There  are  some  cases,  however,  in 
which  feeds  may  be  ground  to  good  advantage  for  the 
sake  of  having  them  ground.  For  instance,  when  corn 
has  become  very  dry  and  hard  and  cannot  be  easily  mas- 
ticated, it  is  made  palatable  when  ground.  Some  seeds 
are  so  small  and  at  the  same  time  so  hard  that  the  pig 
cannot  masticate  them  as  well  as  he  should.  In  such  cases 
it  is  decidedly  beneficial  to  have  them  ground.  In  general 
the  small  grains  give  better  results  when  ground  while 
corn  may  under  some  conditions  give  equally  good  and 
possibly  better  results  when  fed  whole,  according  to  a 
number  of  conditions. 

SOAKING  FEEDS. 

Many  times  grains  are  soaked  rather  than  ground.  This 
is  a  less  expensive  process  and  in  many  instances  may  be 
as  good  as  grinding.  The  objections  to  it,  however,  are 
that  if  the  pig  is  not  properly  trained  to  masticate  soaked 
feeds  thoroughly,  he  may  swallow  them  as  he  would 
swallow  the  feed  if  he  were  eating  slop.  That  is,  the 
whole  grains  in  a  soaked  form  would  be  taken  into  the 
stomach  without  being  masticated.  It  can  easily  be  seen 
that  in  such  a  state  the  feed  would  not  be  as, thoroughly 
digested  and  the  results  would  not  be  as  good  as  if  the 
grain  were  fed  dry  and  masticated. 

If  grains  are  to  be  soaked,  they  should  be  soaked  suffi- 
ciently long  to  make  them  soft.  Care  should  be  taken, 
however,  not  to  let  the  material  sour.  While  sour  feeds 
in  general  are  as  good  as  sweet  feeds,  provided  they  are 
not  too  sour,  there  is  great  danger  in  changing  from  one 
to  the  other.  If  sour  feeds  are  to  be  used,  they  should 
always  be  sour,  and  if  sweet  feeds  are  to  be  used,  they 
should  always  be  sweet.  This  is  a  point  of  considerable 


184  SWINE 

significance  and  is  the  cause  of  a  great  many  of  the  trou- 
bles encountered  in  swine  feeding. 

COOKING  FEEDS. 

Experiment  stations  have  long  ago  determined  that 
cooked  feed  in  general  is  no  more  valuable  for  swine  than 
feed  in  the  raw  state.  If  anything,  cooking  renders  some 
of  the  nutrients  more  undigestible.  Cooking,  however, 
has  some  advantages  as  follows : 

Effect  in  Compounding  the  Ration. — Many  times 
cooked  feed  can  be  mixed  more  thoroughly  into  slop  with 
other  feeds,  hence  will  be  better,  not  because  it  is  cooked, 
but  because  more  uniform  slop  is  obtained  in  which  the 
protein  is  more  evenly  distributed.  For  instance,  if  ground 
corn  is  used  raw  to  be  mixed  into  slop  with  various  other 
constituents,  the  corn,  if  it  is  not  ground  into  a  fine  meal, 
will  soon  settle  to  the  bottom,  and  the  nitrogenous  feeds 
may  be  distributed  through  the  other  part  of  the  ration. 
If  great  care  is  not  taken  in  feeding  such  slop,  some  of 
the  pigs  will  get  too  much  protein  and  others  too  much 
carbohydrate,  which  will  have  detrimental  results.  By 
cooking  the  ground  corn,  the  particles  will  more  nearly 
float  and  the  slop  as  a  whole  will  have  a  much  more  uni- 
form consistency. 

Cooking  also  may  apply  to  small  and  hard  seeds  the 
same  as  soaking.  Furthermore,  cooked  feed  has  the  ad- 
vantage that  it  does  not  sour  so  readily  and  does  not  take 
as  long  for  the  grains  or  particles  of  feed  to  become 
thoroughly  softened. 

Effect  on  Variety  and  Protein. — Another  advantage  in 
cooking  which  is  especially  true  in  the  case  of  practical 
feeders  throughout  the  corn  belt  is  in  furnishing  greater 
variety  of  feeds  as  well  as  supplying  more  protein  in  the 


AUTHOR'S  METHOD   OP  FEEDING  185 

ration.  Instructions  that  usually  go  with  feed  cookers, 
as  they  are  sold  by  agents  traveling  through  the  country, 
are  that  when  corn  is  put  into  the  cooker  there  should 
be  some  other  grains  mixed  with  it  such  as  barley,  oats 
or  rye,  or  any  other  feed  that  is  available.  This  serves 
a  double  purpose:  First,  the  small  grains  usually  con- 
tain more  protein  than  corn  and  thus  will  add  protein  to 
the  ration,  making  it  a  more  nearly  balanced  ration,  which 
will  produce  better  results  than  when  corn  is  fed  alone. 
Second,  the  greater  the  number  of  feeds,  the  better  will 
be  the  ration  on  account  of  variety  because  the  greater 
will  be  the  possibility  of  furnishing  the  pig  with  the  vari- 
ous nutrients,  especially  the  mineral  substances  that  the 
system  demands. 

Effect  on  Water  Supply. — Perhaps  the  greatest  advan- 
tage to  be  gained  from  cooking  feed  is  in  the  addition  of 
water  to  the  ration.  It  has  long  been  known  that  cooked 
feeds  are  especially  advantageous  during  the  winter  sea- 
son. As  determined  by  the  writer,  when  pigs  are  fed  dry 
feeds  during  this  time  of  the  year,  and  given  free  access 
to  water,  they  will  not  drink  enough  for  the  proper  work- 
ing of  the  internal  mechanism,  hence  will  not  make  as 
large  or  as  economical  gains  as  is  possible.  By  cooking 
the  feed,  the  water  is  driven  into  the  grains  or  particles 
of  grain,  as  well  as  other  dry  feeds  that  may  be  used. 
This  also  usually  is  fed  in  connection  with  water  in  a 
trough.  Thus  if  a  pig  is  fed  this  cooked  feed  he  is  com- 
pelled to  take  more  nearly  the  right  quantity  of  water; 
consequently  will  produce  better  results.  Good  results 
are  also  possible  if  the  proper  quantity  of  water  is  fed  in 
connection  with  dry  feeds.  Furthermore,  cooking  may 
have  an  advantage  in  the  case  of  some  feeds  by  taking 
water  out.  This  is  especially  true  of  potatoes,  mangel 


186  SWINE 

wurzels,  turnips,  etc.  Adding  meal  to  such  a  ration  im- 
proves it  still  further.  Feeds  like  these  which  contain 
from  85  to  90  per  cent  of  water,  carry  with  them  more 
water  than  the  ordinary  pig  can  use  to  the  best  advan- 
tage. If  these  are  cooked,  and  part  of  this  water  driven 
out,  the  ration  will  be  more  nearly  balanced. 

CHANGES  IN  RATIONS. 

Effect  on  Coefficient  of  Digestibility. — Some  of  the 
most  recent  experimental  data  show  that  a  pig  is  very 
subject  to  changes  in  his  ration.  The  last  digestion  and 
metabolism  experiment  conducted  by  the  writer  seems  to 
show  that  a  pig,  when  fed  a  certain  ration  for  a  consider- 
able length  of  time,  will  digest  this  more  thoroughly  after 
a  few  weeks  than  at  first.  That  is,  the  coefficient  of  di- 
gestibility gradually  rises;  consequently  if  the  pig  is  to 
produce  the  best  results  from  a  given  ration,  he  must  be 
fed  this  for  a  long  enough  time  to  become  used  to  it. 

Effect  on  Protein  Metabolism. — Aside  from  the  effect 
on  digestibility,  as  previously  noted,  when  the  factor  of 
waste  is  once  established  it  has  a  tendency  to  continue 
at  that  rate  indefinitely,  and  is  very  difficult  to  eliminate 
or  even  to  reduce.  In  order  to  change  from  a  ration  that 
is  high  in  protein  to  one  that  is  low  in  protein,  four  weeks' 
time  should  be  consumed.  If  the  time  during  which  such 
a  change  is  made  is  too  short,  the  pig,  on  account  of  the 
tenacity  with  which  the  factor  of  waste  is  maintained, 
will  metabolize  and  excrete  more  than  is  received  in  its 
ration.  This  will  result  in  a  breaking  down  of  the  protein 
tissue  of  the  body,  and  in  loss  of  vitality;  possibly  also 
in  loss  in  live  weight.  At  any  rate  the  pig  will  make 
smaller  gains  under  such  conditions: 

In  the  case  of  breeding  animals  the  loss  of  vitality  un- 


AUTHOR'S  METHOD  OF  FEEDING  187 

der  such  conditions  is  a  very  important  factor.  This  is 
especially  true  with  brood  sows  and  seems  to  be  one  of 
the  reasons  for  the  fact  that  show  sows  are  frequently 
either  barren  or  very  difficult  to  get  with  pig.  The  show 
animal,  according  to  the  customs  and  demands  of  the 
show  ring,  is  usually  put  in  very  high  condition,  which 
means  that  she  is -fed  the  greatest  possible  quantity  of 
feed  that  she  may  be  induced  to  eat.  This  usually  con- 
tains a  large  quantity  of  protein  which  will  set  up  a  high 
factor  of  waste.  After  the  show  such  an  animal  is  re- 
duced in  flesh  because  she  is  too  fat  for  any  good  use  for 
breeding  purposes.  By  this  process  of  reduction  of  feed 
the  protein  is  reduced  and,  when  too  great,  will  result  in 
a  breaking  down  of  the  protein  tissue  of  the  body  and  it 
is  more  than  likely  that  the  generative  organs  will  be 
affected  as  soon,  or  possibly  sooner  than  the  other  organs, 
because  they  are  not  as  constantly  in  use,  hence  probably 
not  as  stable.  This  then  impairs  that  part  of  the  animal 
for  which  he  is  being  kept.  If  the  feed  is  not  artificially 
reduced  for  such  an  animal,  it  has  been  naturally  reduced 
even  before  such  a  sow  has  gone  to  the  show  ring.  Be- 
cause, as  already  noted,  when  a  pig  increases  in  age  and 
approaches  maturity,  the  quantity  of  feed  that  is  natur- 
ally eaten  is  greatly  reduced.  Thus  the  factor  of  waste 
that  was  established  previously  may  have  consumed  a 
large  part  of  the  protein  tissue  of  the  body  of  such  an 
animal  before  she  appears  in  the  show  ring.  This  has 
already  rendered  her  barren,  or  placed  her  in  a  condition 
where  it  will  be  difficult  for  her  to  perform  her  maternal 
functions. 

Changes  in  general  that  are  to  be  made  in  a  ration, 
therefore,  should  be  made  very  gradually,  both  in  the 
quantity  of  nutrients  or  the  total  amount  of  feed  that  is 


188  SWINE 

given,  as  well  as  in  the  kinds  of  feeds  that  enter  into  the 
ration. 

Effect  on  Habit. — The  pig  will  eat  feed  largely  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  way  he  is  trained.  As,  for  instance,  a 
pig  that  is  fed  upon  nothing  but  slop  during  the  early  part 
of  his  life,  when  changed  to  dry  or  whole  grain,  will  not 
eat  it  immediately.  Pigs  that  have  been  accustomed  to 
certain  definite  feeds  will  not  relish  and  may  not  eat  for 
a  time  new  feeds  that  may  be  given  them.  Thus  if  pigs 
are  fed  on  corn,  barley  and  skim  milk  for  a  time,  soy 
beans  when  added  will  not  be  relished  by  them  and  the 
ration  will  not  be  eaten  as  readily,  will  not  be  as  thor- 
oughly digested,  and  will  not  produce  the  results  that  it 
should.  Therefore,  a  pig  may  be  thrown  off  feed  on  a 
total  quantity  that  is  less  than  he  ought  to  consume  to 
the  best  advantage,  and  less  than  he  will  consume  later 
after  he  has  become  accustomed  to  the  new  feed. 

Thus  the  amounts  of  the  various  kinds  of  feeds  that 
are  to  be  eaten  by  a  pig,  or  the  kinds  of  feeds  that  will  be 
eaten  at  all,  are  largely  a  matter  of  training.  Pigs  may  be 
trained  to  eat  feeds  of  various  kinds,  as  well  as  to  eat  dif- 
ferent proportions  of  concentrates  or  of  roughages.  Since 
the  total  quantity  of  feed  eaten  and  the  manner  in  which 
it  is  eaten  are  such  very  important  factors,  it  is  highly 
desirable  that  changes  in  a  ration  be  made  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  the  pig  will  at  all  times  eat  the  required  amount 
with  a  decided  relish.  That  is,  changes  should  be  made 
very  gradually,  and  the  more  gradual  the  better. 

GIVING  THE  PIG  ITS  FEED. 

It  used  to  be  said  that  the  man  who  could  do  nothing 
else  could  still  be  a  farmer.  Also  that  the  farmer  who  did 
not  know  much  about  any  other  branch  of  farming  could 


AUTHOR'S  METHOD  OF  FEEDING  189 

feed  pigs.  Swine  feeding  from  this  point  of  view  is  put 
upon  the  basis  of  taking  a  basket  of  corn  and  throwing  it 
across  the  fence  into  the  feed  lot.  This,  however,  is  not 
even  the  first  principle  of  practical  and  successful  swine 
feeding. 

A  bunch  of  pigs  should  be  given  their  feed  in  such  a 
manner  that  each  individual  pig  gets  its  proportionate 
part  of  the  various  food  nutrients  of  the  ration.  Further- 
more, the  ration  should  supply  the  pigs  the  required 
amounts  of  each  of  the  different  nutrients.  Various 
conditions,  as  already  noted,  may  modify  the  total  amount 
of  feed  that  might  be  consumed  by  the  particular  bunch 
of  pigs  in  question,  to  the  best  advantage. 

In  general,  pigs  should  be  fed  in  small  droves  and  these 
should  be  made  up  of  individuals  of  the  same  age,  as  well 
as  of  the  same  size.  As  already  learned,  the  requirement 
of  a  pig  gradually  changes  as  he  grows  older  and  heavier; 
consequently,  if  pigs  are  to  be  fed  together,  they  should 
be  of  the  same  size  and  age  in  order  to  require  the  same 
quantity  of  feed.  If  pigs  of  different  sizes  are  fed  to- 
gether, the  larger  ones  are  likely  to  get  more  than  their 
proportionate  part  because  they  will  crowd  the  smaller 
ones  away  from  the  trough.  Any  system  of  feeding  ac- 
cording to  which  the  pig  may  be  given  its  feed  that  will 
fulfill  these  conditions,  is  a  good  system.  The  several 
methods  of  administering  the  ration  may  be  considered 
as  follows : 

The  Feed  Trough. — This  may  be  set  in  the  fence  paral- 
lel to  the  fence  so  that  the  feeder  can  approach  the 
trough  from  the  outside  and  the  pigs  from  the  inside  of 
the  feed  lot.  A  panel  may  be  placed  immediately  above 
the  trough  and  hung  at  either  end  of  the  upper  side.  By 
having  a  latch  slipping  crosswise  at  the  center  of  this 


190 


SWINE 


AUTHOR'S  METHOD  OF  FEEDING  191 

panel,  it  may  be  swung  in  and  fastened,  shutting  the  pigs 
out  of  the  trough  and  giving  the  feeder  an  opportunity 
to  put  the  slop  into  it.  After  the  feed  is  in  the  trough  and 
all  the  pigs  are  present,  the  panel  may  be  swung  back, 
giving  the  pigs  access  to  the  feed.  In  such  a  case  not 
more  thaji  ten  or  fifteen  pigs  should  be  fed  together,  or 
as  many  as  can  conveniently  get  to  a  trough  of  moderate 
dimensions. 

Troughs  of  various  forms  are  in  use  and  made  of  vari- 
ous kinds  of  material,  such  as  wood,  cement  and  iron.  A 
few  general  considerations  as  to  the  shape  and  construc- 
tion of  a  trough  may  be  advisable.  The  trough  should 
be  large  enough  to  contain  the  quantity  of  slop  that  is  to 
be  fed  to  the  bunch  of  pigs.  It  should  not  be  higher  than 
is  necessary  to  enable  the  pigs  to  get  at  the  feed  conveni- 
ently. It  should  not  be  so  broad  that  it  is  necessary  for 
the  pigs  to  get  into  the  trough  with  their  feet  in  order 
to  get  the  feed.  The  wall  of  the  trough  should  not  be 
so  thick  that  it  will  be  difficult  for  the  pig  to  reach  the 
feed  in  the  same  when  he  stands  next  to  it,  and  it  should 
be  of  such  form  that  the  pig  can  get  all  the  feed.  Along 
with  these  considerations  a  feed  trough  should  be  made  as 
cheaply  and  as  durably  as  possible.  Very  satisfactory 
troughs  may  be  made  by  nailing  two  planks  together  in 
the  shape  of  a  V  with  pieces  nailed  at  each  end.  For 
large  hogs  a  2x10  and  a  2x8  spiked  together  make  a  very 
desirable  trough.  For  younger  and  smaller  pigs  nar- 
rower pieces  should  be  used.  Various  kinds  of  commer- 
cial iron  troughs  are  on  the  market  which  are  all  right 
if  not  too  expensive  and  if  properly  used.  They  are  ex- 
tensively used  by  breeders. 

The  Feed  Yard. — Another  arrangement  of  feeding  pens 
\s  as  follows :  A  feeding  pen  may  be  built  which  is 


192 


SWINE 


AUTHOR'S  METHOD   OF   FEEDING  193 

separated  from  the  pasture  or  the  lot  containing  the  pigs. 
This  feeding  yard  may  have  troughs  placed  in  it  so  that 
the  pigs  can  get  to  them  either  from  botn  sides  or  from 
one  side,  to  suit  the  convenience  of  the  feeder.  If  placed 
along  the  fence,  the  feed  may  be  put  into  them  without 
going  into  the  yard.  If  set  in  the  center  of  the  yard,  the 
feeder  will  have  to  enter  the  yard  in  order  to  put  the  slop 
into  the  troughs.  At  feeding  time  the  gate  should  be 
closed,  shutting  the  pigs  out  of  the  feeding  yard.  After 
putting  the  slop  into  the  troughs,  and  after  the  pigs, 
which  are  of  the  same  age  and  size,  are  all  present,  the 
gate  may  be  opened  and  the  pigs  allowed  to  enter.  Such 
a  gate  should  be  made  wide  enough  so  that  the  pigs  can 
enter  quickly  without  crowding  and  injuring  one  another. 
The  cut  (23)  shows  one  kind  of  an  arrangement,  but  this 
can  be  made  to  suit  fancy  or  convenience.  By  this  means 
a  larger  bunch  of  pigs  may  be  fed  together  than  by  the 
other  method  outlined,  but  in  general  the  smaller  the 
bunch  of  pigs  that  are  fed  together  the  better  will  be  the 
results. 

Individual  Feeding. — In  general  it  is  not  good  policy 
to  feed  pigs  individually.  Under  such  conditions  more 
expense  is  involved  and  the  pig  will  usually  not  eat  as 
much  as  he  will  when  being  fed  at  a  common  trough  with 
other  pigs.  Company  seems  to  stimulate  the  appetite 
apparently  because  of  the  greediness  to  prevent  other  in- 
dividuals from  getting  more  than  their  portion  of  the 
ration.  Nevertheless,  it  has  been  shown  that  by  feeding 
pigs  in  individual  stalls,  not  considering  equipment  and 
labor,  larger  and  more  economical  gains  can  be  pro- 
duced, especially  during  the  early  part  of  their  life  or  dur- 
ing the  growing  period.  At  this  time  the  danger  of  the 
pigs  not  eating  a  sufficient  quantity  does  not  exist,  at 


194  SWINE 

least  not  to  so  great  an  extent,  and  by  feeding  them  in 
separate  stalls,  the  distribution  of  the  various  nutrients 
can  be  more  accurately  accomplished,  thus  preventing  to 
a  greater  extent  the  establishment  of  the  factor  of  waste, 
and  producing  larger  and  more  economical  gains. 

THE  NUMBER  OF  FEEDS  PER  DAY. 

In  general  swine  are  fed  twice  per  day,  morning  and 
evening.  Many  feeders  also  give  them  a  noon  feed.  Con- 
ditions may  modify  this  practice  to  a  considerable  extent. 
If  the  pigs  are  on  good  pasture  and  get  a  portion  of  their 
daily  feed  from  the  same,  they  have  free  access  to  feed 
at  all  times.  Then  if  they  are  fed  the  supplementary  part 
of  their  ration  only  twice  a  day,  morning  and  evening, 
they  are  still  in  reality  being  fed  three  times  a  day  or 
oftener.  If  a  pig  gets  nothing  except  what  is  brought  to 
him  by  the  feeder,  that  is,  if  he  is  kept  in  a  dry  lot,  the 
number  of  feeds  per  day  is  of  greater  importance. 

As  shown  by  the  recent  experimental  data  of  the  writer, 
the  number  of  feeds  may  exert  a  considerable  influence, 
and  better  results  are  obtained  where  the  pig  is  fed  a  lim- 
ited quantity  during  the  early  part  of  his  life,  as  previ- 
ously outlined,  which  is  in  three  equal  portions  per  day, 
morning,  noon,  and  night.  This  influence  is  greater  dur- 
ing the  growing  period  than  during  the  fattening  period, 
and  greater  with  concentrated  than  with  bulky  feeds. 

When  a  pig  is  put  on  full  feed,  he  will  make  no  larger 
gains  when  fed  three  times  a  day  than  he  will  when  fed 
only  twice  a  day,  but  when  being  fed  three  times  per  day 
he  will  eat  more  feed.  Since  he  eats  more  feed  and  makes 
no  larger  gains,  these  are  more  expensive.  When  he  is 
young  and  put  on  full  feed  and  fed  only  twice  per  day,  he 
can  eat  more  than  he  can  use  to  the  best  advantage; 


AUTHOR'S  METHOD  OP  FEEDING  195 

hence,  by  feeding  three  times,  which  will  enable  him  to 
eat  still  more,  will  produce  no  added  advantage. 

Influence  on  Factor  of  Waste. — The  reason  for  the  bet- 
ter results  obtained  by  the  practice  of  feeding  three  times 
per  day  seems  to  be  the  influence  it  exerts  on  the  factor 
of  waste.  When  a  pig  is  given  his  entire  ration  in  only 
two  feeds  per  day,  and  this  is  fed  in  a  digestible  form  such 
as  concentrated  feeds,  the  pig,  as  usual,  will  digest  the 
entire  quantity  eaten  within  a  few  hours  after  the  meal. 
During  the  time  the  feed  is  being  digested,  the  pig  can 
use  the  supplies  of  nutrients  for  his  vital  activities,  such 
as  the  production  of  energy,  heat,  tissue,  etc.,  directly 
from  the  digested  material  as  it  comes  from  the  stomach. 
After  the  feed  has  all  been  digested  by  the  stomach,  the 
pig  must,  between  meals,  draw  from  the  material  that  was 
stored  in  the  body  for  use  at  such  a  time  to  supply  what 
is  necessary  for  maintenance,  waste,  energy  and  heat. 

The  body  is  supplied  with  various  means  of  storing  the 
digested  material,  as  it  comes  from  the  stomach,  for  fu- 
ture use.  But  the  storage  capacity  for  the  different  nutri- 
ents is  limited.  This  is  especially  true  of  protein.  The 
animal  apparently  can  store  but  a  small  quantity  of  this. 
If  more  is  digested  at  one  time  than  can  be  taken  care  of 
by  direct  use  and  by  storage,  it  apparently  is  excreted, 
setting  up  largely  what  is  called  the  factor  of  waste.  This 
not  only  results  in  a  loss  of  the  excess,  but  the  animal 
apparently  has  a  tendency  to  waste  that  quantity  indefi- 
nitely thereafter,  which  becomes  a  very  important  factor 
when  it  is  considered  that  the  pig  naturally  eats  less  feed 
as  he  grows  older.  This  allows  the  factor  of  waste  to 
grow  relatively  more  important  as  time  progresses.  It 
also  takes  considerable  energy  to  excrete  the  waste,  which 
energy  might  otherwise  be  used  for  profitable  produc- 


196  SWINE 

tion,  all  of  which  detracts  from  the  desirable  results  to  be 
obtained  from  such  a  practice.  Consequently,  if  the  pig 
cannot  store  enough  protein  or  other  nutrients  to  tide 
over  the  time  between  meals,  when  he  is  fed  on-ly  twice 
per  day,  and  thereby  sets  up  a  high  factor  of  waste,  he 
cannot  be  expected  to  make  as  large  gains  as  he  would  if 
he  were  fed  three  times  a  day,  because  the  material  would 
not  be  available  for  making  gains  in  live  weight.  Fur- 
thermore, after  the  time  that  all  the  stored  material  were 
used,  and  before  the  time  the  next  supply  came  from  the 
stomach,  the  animal  would  have  to  draw  upon  the  fixed 
tissue  of  the  body  to  supply  the  functions  necessary  for 
maintenance,  waste,  heat  and  energy  production.  This 
would  reduce  the  store  of  fixed  tissue  already  established, 
which  would  lessen  the  gains  made  during  such  a  period. 
The  reason  that  feeding  three  times  a  day  is  more  ef- 
fective for  concentrated  than  for  bulky  rations  is  that  the 
concentrated  ration  is  digested  more  rapidly.  The  period 
during  which  the  bulky  ration  is  digested  is  more  ex- 
tended and  supplies  the  various  functions  of  the  animal 
directly  for  a  longer  time,  consequently  is  more  nearly  in 
harmony  with  their  demands.  Feeding  three  times  per 
day  is  more  advantageous  with  the  young  pig,  or  with  the 
pig  during  the  growing  period,  than  with  the  older  pig,  or 
during  the  fattening  period  because  the  younger  pig  can 
eat  the  more.  He  apparently  can  eat  and  digest  more 
than  he  can  use  at  the  time  and  store  for  future  use,  while 
all  that  the  older  pig  can  eat  is  taken  care  of  by  these 
means. 

RESULTS. 

As  to  the  results  that  may  be  obtained  with  this  system 
of  feeding  as  compared  with  feeding  according  to  the 
Wolff-Lehmann  Standard,  the  following  may  be  cited: 


AUTHOR'S  METHOD  OF  FEEDING  197 

In  the  first  experiment,  at  the  Illinois  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, by  which  this  system  was  developed,  where  the 
pigs  were  fed  in  this  way  they  made  28.6  per  cent  larger 
gains  during  the  growing  period  than  pigs  that  were  fed 
according  to  the  Wolff-Lehmann  Standard.  At  the  same 
time  they  consumed  5.4  per  cent,  less  feed.  Thus  it  will  be 
seen  that  this  system  of  feeding  produced  an  advantage  of 
about  one-third  in  its  favor.  In  one  of  the  latest  experi- 
ments of  the  series  about  44  per  cent,  greater  gains  in 
live  weight  were  made.  Even  though  the  development 
of  this  new  standard  has  not  yet  been  completed,  it  has 
been  shown  recently  that  a  pig  at  eight  months  of  age 
can  be  made  to  weigh  300  pounds  and  it  is  believed  that 
it  ought  not  require  more  than  1,200  pounds  of  feed  to 
do  it. 

OFF-HAND  FEEDING. 

Without  going  into  details,  as  given  previously  in 
this  chapter,  swine  may  be  divided  into  mature  hogs, 
young  breeding  hogs,  between  the  ages  of  one  and  two 
years  that  are  still  growing,  and  growing  pigs  and  shotes. 
The  latter  class  should  be  subdivided  into  those  that  are 
being  fed  for  market  and  those  that  are  being  developed 
for  breeding  purposes.  The  latter  should  have  less  feed 
than  the  former.  The  rations  for  all  hogs  should  con- 
tain plenty  of  mineral  matter.  Young  and  growing  pigs, 
as  well  as  breeding  hogs,  need  a  comparatively  large 
quantity  of  water  while  the  fattening  hog  needs  less. 
For  mature  breeding  stock  there  is  probably  sufficient 
protein  in  the  non-nitrogenous  feeds.  The  rations  for 
young  and  growing  pigs  should  be  made  up  of  a  mixture 
of  carbonaceous  and  nitrogenous  feeds,  using  in  general 
from  one  to  six  times  the  quantity  of  the  former  that  is 
used  of  the  latter. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
FEEDING  THE  HERD  AND  THE  PIGS. 

In  general  the  feeding  of  the  breeding  herd  should  be 
considered  under  two  separate  heads,  as  follows :  Feed- 
ing the  young  animals  and  feeding  the  mature  animals. 
The  pig  as  a  rule  does  not  reach  maturity  until  he  is 
about  two  years  old;  consequently,  young  and  growing 
pigs  that  are  being  developed  for  the  breeding  herd  need 
to  have  sufficient  protein  in  their  ration  that  they  can  de- 
velop their  carcasses  as  well  as  in  the  case  of  sows  to 
produce  the  litter  and  milk  for  the  same.  Old  sows  need 
not  be  fed  any  more  protein  than  is  sufficient  for  main- 
tenance and  to  supply  what  is  necessary  for  the  offspring. 
The  remainder  of  the  ration  should  be  made  up  largely  of 
carbohydrates. 

FEEDING  SOWS. 

As  previously  learned,  where  the  subject  of  feeding  was 
considered  in  Chapter  13,  the  best  results  are  obtained  by 
feeding  varying  quantities  of  nutrients  through  the  grow- 
ing period.  In  the  case  of  the  market  hog  the  growing 
period  ceases  at  about  six  months  of  age.  For  the  breed- 
ing animal  the  growing  period  should  be  extended  much 
further.  In  the  case  of  protein,  the  amount  necessary  for 
maximum  and  most  economical  gains  increases  and  de- 
creases during  comparatively  short  periods.  In  order  to 
carry  this  to  completion  with  young  sows  that  are  being 
developed  for  the  breeding  herd,  the  following  is  sug- 
gested : 

(198-) 


FEEDING  THE  HERD  AND  THE  PIGS  199 

Gilts. — The  young  sows  or  gilts  that  are  to  be  put 
into  the  breeding  herd  should  not  be  fed  in  the  same  lot 
with  the  market  hogs.  As  previously  stated,  they  should 
have  more  water,  less  protein  and  less  carbohydrate  up 
to  six  months  of  age  than  the  market  pigs.  This  will 
have  the  effect  of  keeping  the  factor  of  waste  low  and 
will  leave  these  young  sows  in  a  condition  for  greater 
usefulness  afterwards.  Following  this  time  the  market 
hogs  are  simply  being  fattened  and  fed  only  a  little  pro- 
tein. The  gilts  may  be  given  another  increase  in  pro- 
tein, and  this  process  of  increase  and  decrease  may  con- 
tinue as  shown  in  cut  20a  during  the  growing  period. 
The  time  during  which  a  large  quantity  of  protein  is 
being  fed  should  not  be  continued  too  long,  as  it  has  a 
tendency  to  carry  with  it  a  high  factor  of  waste. 

The  method  adopted  in  regard  to  the  time  when  the 
young  sow  is  bred  may  have  considerable  influence  as  to 
her  development.  There  are  two  general  systems  accord- 
ing to  which  this  is  done.  The  young  sow  may  be  bred 
at  about  eight  months  of  age  so  that  she  will  farrow  her 
first  litter  when  she  is  one  year  old.  During  the  period 
of  pregnancy  the  sow  will  make  some  better  use  of  her 
feed  and  will  probably  not  divert  quite  as  much  into  the 
channel  of  waste.  At  any  rate,  she  will  be  able  to  utilize 
a  little  more  protein.  During  the  period  of  lactation  the 
sow  will  naturally  be  considerably  suckled  down  and  be 
in  very  thin  flesh,  which  has  a  tendency  to  reduce  the 
factor  of  waste  to  a  minimum,  leaving  the  sow  in  a  condi- 
tion after  weaning  the  litter  to  go  ahead  with  another 
period  of  maximum  growth  or  development. 

Furthermore,  the  fact  that  a  young  sow  is  bred  accord- 
ing to  such  a  practice  will  have  a  tendency  to  increase  her 
capacity  as  well  as  to  develop  her  milk-giving  functions. 


200  SWINE 

With  the  increase  in  the  capacity  of  the  young  sow  she 
will  be  enabled  after  this  to  eat  larger  quantities  of  feed 
and  with  a  reduction  of  the  factor  of  waste,  she  will  be 
in  a  position,  after  weaning  the  first  litter,  which  was 
farrowed  at  the  time  she  was  one  year  old,  to  make  con- 
siderable growth  and  complete  the  development  of  her 
carcass  to  a  maximum  degree.  This  sow  then  should  not 
have  her  second  litter  of  pigs  until  she  has  come  to  ma- 
turity at  two  years  of  age. 

The  argument  against  this  practice  is  that  by  breeding 
a  gilt  at  so  young  an  age  she  may  be  checked  in  growth 
to  such  an  extent  that  she  will  never  reach  the  size  that 
she  otherwise  would.  This,  however,  is  not  considered  by 
the  writer  sufficient  to  overbalance  the  points  already 
mentioned. 

The  other  practice  that  is  in  general  vogue  is  to  con- 
tinue to  develop  the  young  sow  up  to  the  time  she  is 
about  fourteen  months  old  and  then  breed  her  to  farrow 
the  first  litter  at  one  and  one-half  years  of  age,  and  the 
second  litter  at  two  years  of  age,  the  time  at  which  she 
will  have  reached  maturity.  This  has  the  advantage  of 
not  having  the  growth  of  the  sow  checked  as  early  as 
would  be  the  case  in  suckling  a  litter  between  the  ages  of 
12  and  14  months.  There  also  are  disadvantages  that 
may  be  argued  against  this  practice. 

By  feeding  continuously  for  such  a  long  period  of  time, 
the  factor  of  waste  may  become  so  high  that  the  pig  is 
not  an  economical  producer  of  pork  and  hence  will  not 
make  sufficient  gains  in  live  weight.  The  capacity  of 
such  an  animal  may  also  become  comparatively  much 
smaller,  which  would  not  allow  such  a  pig  to  eat  sufficient 
for  maximum  growth.  Furthermore,  if  such  a  young  sow 
is  not  fed  very  carefully,  her  reproductive  organs  may  be 


FEEDING  THE  HERD  AND  THE  PIGS       201 

considerably  impaired  so  that  she  will  not  produce  as 
large  litters  as  she  otherwise  would,  and  she  may  even 
become  entirely  barren  and  not  produce  at  all.  Again, 
the  milk-giving  functions  of  such  a  sow  are  not  as  likely 
to  be  well  developed  as  would  be  the  case  if  she  were 
bred  earlier  in  life. 

Old  Sows. — As  previously  learned,  the  animal  body 
uses  protein  primarily  to  supply  the  protein  metabolism 
either  for  maintenance,  for  the  factor  of  waste,  or  for  the 
production  of  new  protein  or  lean  meat  tissue.  Also,  the 
carbohydrate  feeds  are  used  most  economically  for  the 
production  of  energy,  heat,  and  fat  tissues.  Thus  an  old 
sow  that  has  come  to  maturity  and  is  adding  no  more 
lean  meat  to  its  carcass,  needs  only  sufficient  protein  to 
supply  what  is  needed  for  maintenance  and  for  the  factor 
of  waste.  If  the  factor  of  waste  was  not  established 
previously  or  has  been  greatly  reduced,  such  a  sow  will 
need  only  sufficient  for  maintenance  which,  as  previously 
seen,  is  a  comparatively  small  quantity.  After  such  a 
sow  is  bred,  and  during  the  period  of  lactation,  she  will 
need  enough  in  addition  to  develop  the  foetus  as  well  as 
to  supply  milk  during  the  period  of  lactation.  Thus  a  ma- 
ture sow  may  be  fed  more  economically  than  a  young  and 
growing  sow  because  carbohydrate  feeds  in  general  are 
cheaper  than  protein  feeds. 

FEEDING  THE  BOAR. 

This  member  of  the  breeding  herd  may  be  fed  in  gen- 
eral the  same  as  the  sows.  If  he  is  young  and  growing, 
he  should  have  sufficient  protein  for  this  purpose,  and  if 
he  is  mature,  he  needs  only  enough  for  maintenance,  as- 
suming that  the  factor  of  waste  is  a  minus  quantity,  and 
the  remainder  of  his  ration  may  be  made  up  in  the  main 


202  SWINE 

of  cheaper  feeds,  such  as  the  carbonaceous  feeds.  In 
addition  to  this,  however,  the  feed  for  the  boar  must  be 
varied  to  some  extent  in  accordance  with  circumstances. 
As  previously  stated,  the  amount  of  protein  that  an 
animal  requires  is  practically  the  same  during  periods  of 
work  as  during  periods  of  idleness.  Consequently  an 
animal  needs  more  carbohydrate  when  mechanical  work 
is  being  done  than  is  necessary  during  periods  when  no 
such  work  is  being  done.  The  boar,  however,  during  the 
breeding  season  may  need  a  little  more  protein  to  supply 
the  glands  that  secrete  the  spermatic  fluid  than  during 
other  seasons,  as  well  as  more  carbohydrate  to  furnish 
the  energy  required  at  this  time. 

FEEDING  THE  PIGS  BEFORE  WEANING. 

The  system  of  feeding  as  outlined  in  Chapter  13  starts 
with  the  pig  at  weaning  time  and  takes  him  to  eight 
months  of  age,  when  he  is  in  prime  condition  for  market. 
The  amount  of  gain  made  by  the  pig  during  this  period, 
as  well  as  the  cost  of  the  gains,  depends  in  a  great  meas- 
ure upon  the  way  the  pig  was  fed  before  weaning  or 
during  the  time  he  was  still  with  his  dam. 

A  pig  in  general  will  learn  to  eat  at  about  four  or  five 
weeks  of  age.  As  a  rule  pigs  are  not  weaned  until  they 
are  eight,  and  many  times  not  until  twelve  weeks  old. 
Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  pig  is  being  fed  for  a  considerable 
length  of  time  when  he  is  still  with  his  dam.  This  is  a 
period  in  the  life  of  the  pig  that  must  be  very  carefully 
guarded  so  as  not  to  over-feed  him.  As  learned  pre- 
viously, the  ordinary  hog  eats  relatively  a  smaller  quan- 
tity of  feed  as  he  gets  older.  Consequently  a  very  young 
pig,  during  the  period  of  lactation  of  its  dam,  will  eat 
more  than  it  does  after  weaning  time.  Thus  it  is  seen 


FEEDING,  THE  HERD   AND   THE  PIGS  203 

that  if  a  pig  after  weaning  time  can  eat  and  digest  more 
than  he  can  use  to  the  best  advantage,  the  factor  of  waste 
may  also  be  present  and  possibly  to  a  greater  extent  be- 
fore weaning  time ;  hence  it  is  very  necessary  that  the  pig 
be  fed  a  limited  quantity  or  else  be  fed  his  digestible 
nutrients  in  such  diluted  form  that  it  will  be  impossible 
for  him  to  eat  an  excess.  The  milk  of  the  dam  is  about 
90  per  cent  water  and  the  supplementary  feed  that  is 
used  should  also 'contain  considerable  water.  In  general 
the  younger  the  animal  the  more  water  in  its  carcass,  and 
therefore  the  more  water  required  in  its  feed. 

The  pig  also  must  be  fed  its  ration  in  such  form  that  it 
is  very  digestible.  It  is  well  known  that  a  young  animal 
of  any  kind  cannot  eat  feeds  that  are  difficult  to  digest. 
In  the  case  of  a  pig  this  should  be  especially  applicable 
to  the  roughages  in  the  dry  form.  There  are  two  systems 
in  vogue  according  to  which  pigs  are  fed  before  weaning 
time.  These  are  feeding  at  a  separate  trough  and  with 
the  dam. 

Feeding  at  a  Separate  Trough. — With  this  system  of 
feeding  the  litter  is  provided  with  a  small  pen,  with  an 
opening  in  it  called  a  creep,  which  admits  the  little  pigs, 
but  not  the  sow.  In  this  pen  is  placed  a  small  trough  in 
which  the  litter  is  fed.  Under  such  conditions,  when  the 
sow  is  fed  in  her  pen,  the  feed  for  the  litter  is  put  into 
the  separate  pen  and  thus  the  pigs  may  be  fed  more  con- 
centrated, more  palatable,  and  more  expensive  feeds  than 
is  used  for  the  dam  and  so  hasten  their  development  to 
the  greatest  possible  degree. 

The  disadvantages  of  this  system  are  as  follows :  It 
involves  a  little  additional  expense  to  construct  a  sep- 
arate feeding  pen  for  the  litter  with  the  trough  and  the 
creep.  It  is  also  a  little  more  difficult  to  train  the  pigs  to 


204  SWINE 

eat  here  rather  than  to  eat  with  the  dam.  There  is  also 
considerable  danger  that  the  pigs  will  not  eat  all  the  feed 
given  to  them  which  then  will  sour  and  become  a  source 
of  trouble  thereafter  unless  the  trough  is  thoroughly 
cleaned  immediately.  This  not  only  brings  in  scours, 
which  is  a  usual  consequence,  but  also  results  in  over- 
feeding with  its  evil  effects,  as  previously  noted. 

Feeding  with  the  Dam. — According  to  this  system  of 
feeding  the  pigs  are  allowed  to  eat  at  the  same  trough 
with  their  dam.  The  dam  in  such  a  case  is  fed  a  ration 
that  is  also  palatable  to  the  pigs  and  which  is  at  the 
same  time  in  harmony  with  the  requirements  of  the  dam 
at  this  time.  This  is  the  period  at  which  her  energies  are 
taxed  to  the  utmost,  and  in  order  to  produce  the  best 
results  she  must  have  a  ration  that  is  palatable  and  com- 
paratively concentrated.  Furthermore,  she  must  also 
have  considerable  water  in  her  ration,  which  is  also  in 
harmony  with  the  requirements  of  the  pigs. 

The  latter  system  is  the  one  that  is  being  practiced  by 
the  writer  at  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station.  A  ration 
made  up  for  such  cases  is  based  upon  the  total  live  weight 
of  the  sow  plus  litter.  For  young  sows  this  ration  con- 
tains practically  8  to  10  pounds  of  water,  between  .25  and 
.30  pounds  of  digestible  crude  protein,  and  from  1.2  to  1.4 
pounds  of  digestible  carbohydrate  daily  per  hundred 
pounds  live  weight  of  sow  plus  litter.  This  ration  is 
made  up  of  a  variety  of  feeds  such  as  are  available,  but 
this  is  of  secondary  importance  and  must  be  arranged  to 
suit  the  available  feeds  in  any  particular  case.  A  small 
quantity  of  roughage  like  wheat  bran  is  used,  and  the 
amount  of  water  used  must  be  varied  somewhat  as  be- 
tween young  sows  and  old  sows  and  between  summer  and 
winter.  In  general  young  sows  require  a  little  more  feed, 


FEEDING  THE  HERD  AND  THE  PIGS 


205 


than  old  sows.  Indications  also  are  that  a  little  more 
water  may  be  consumed  in  winter  than  in  summer,  be- 
cause in  summer  more  succulent  feeds  are  available 
which  supply  more  or  less  water. 

Sample  Rations. — The  following  is  given  simply  as  a 
guide  and  not  as  a  matter  of  fact.  This  schedule  has 
been  followed  in  a  general  way  at  Illinois  for  several 
years.  It  is  not  considered,  however,  to  have  been  suffi- 
ciently well  verified  at  this  time  to  be  absolute  but  still 
will  serve  as  a  guide  for  feeding  sows  for  a  week  before 
they  farrow,  and  the  sows  and  their  litters  after  farrow- 
ing. Considerable  variation  is  sometimes  necessary  in 
accordance  with  the  individual  that  is  being  fed. 

DAILY    RATIONS    FOR   SOWS   AND   THEIR    LITTERS    ON    FULL   FEED. 
OLD    SOWS. 


Feeds  in  pounds  per  100  pounds  live  weight  daily  of 
sow    plus   litter   on   full   feed. 

NUTRIENTS. 

1 

I 

•I 

<•£   rt 

H 

B 

g 

CO 

pr 

WATER. 

TJ 

3 

0 

CD 

o" 

3 

B 

cLq 

PT 

£ 

I 

CQ 

^ 

E 

| 

OB 

0> 

g 

5" 

s 

v* 

"»I 

o- 

B 

s 

CO 

—  £t 

B 

t-t 

f? 

0  3 

: 

• 

. 

CO 

•   o 

: 

I 

i 

1.2 

.2 

.1 

.3 

2  - 

6.0 

7.0 

.252 

1.147 

2 

1.2 

.1 

.1 

.3 

3 

5.1 

6.1 

.268 

1.131 

3 

1.4 

.1 

.2 

.3 

1 

6.9 

7.9 

.272 

1.163 

4 

1.4 

.2 

.2 

.3 

0 

7.8 

8.8 

.256 

1.179 

YOUNG    SOWS. 


1 

1.5 

.3 

.1 

.2 

2 

7.0 

8.0 

.277 

1.370 

2 

1.5 

.2 

.1 

.2 

3 

6.1 

7.1 

.293 

1.354 

3 

1.7 

.2 

.2 

.2 

1 

7.9 

8.9 

.297 

1.386 

4 

1.7 

.3 

_2 

.2 

0 

8.8 

9.8 

.281 

1.402 

206 


SWINE 


Other  feeds  will  answer  the  purpose  equally  well. 
These  rations  are  used  in  the  following  manner.  Old 
sows  are  brought  to  full  feed  less  rapidly: 

YOUNG    SOWS— RATION    NO.    1. 


Feeds   in  pounds   per  100  pounds   live  weight   of  sow   plus  litter 

Ws 

CORN. 

18? 

Ei 

Tankage  .  . 

I 

cr 
P 

Skimmilk  . 

WATER. 

Q 

1 

w 

1 
n 
ft 

i 

6 

fC 

Winter 

p 

o  5* 

D 

11 

1 

•    o 

: 

7 

j.a 

.3 

6.0 

7.0 

6 

1.0 

.3 

.1 

6.0 

7.0 

5 

.8 

.2 

.2 

6.0 

7.0 

4 

.6 

.2 

.2 

6.0 

7.0 

3 

.4 

.1 

.3 

6.0 

7.0 

2 

.2 

.1 

.4 

6.0 

7.0 

1 

.0 

.4 

•• 

6.0 

7.0 

FARROWING    DAY. 


1 

5.0 

6.0 

2 

.1 

.4 

5.5 

6.5 

3 

.1 

.1 

.8 

6.0 

7.0 

4 

.1 

.1 

.1 

1.2 

6.1 

7.1 

5 

.2 

.1 

.2 

1.6 

6.2 

7.2 

6 

.4 

.2 

.2 

2.0 

6.3 

7.3 

7 

.5 

.2 

.1 

.2 

2.0 

6.4 

7.4 

8 

.7 

.2 

.1 

.2 

2.0 

6.5 

7.5 

9 

.8 

.3 

.1 

.2 

2.0 

6.6 

7.6 

10 

1.0 

.3 

.1 

.2 

2.0 

6.7 

7.7 

11 

1.1 

.3 

.1 

.2 

2.0 

6.8 

7.8 

12 

1.3 

.3 

.1 

.2 

2.0 

6.9 

7.9 

13 

1.4 

.3 

.1 

.2 

2.0 

7.0 

8.0 

14 

1.5 

.3 

.1 

.2 

2.0 

7.0 

8.0 

15 

1.5 

.3 

.1 

.2 

2.0 

7.0 

8.0 

16 

1.5 

.3 

.1 

.2 

2.0 

7.0 

8.0 

17 

1.5 

.3 

.1 

.2 

2.0 

7.0 

8.0 

18 

1.5 

.3 

.1 

.2 

2.0 

7.0 

8.0 

19 

1.5 

.3 

.1 

.2 

2.0 

7.0 

8.0 

20 

1.5 

.3 

.1 

.2 

2.0 

7.0 

8.0 

21 

1.5 

.3 

.1 

.2 

2.0 

7.0 

8.0 

WEEKS    AFTER    FARROWING— FEEDS    DAILY. 


4 

1.2 

.3 

.3 

.1 

.2 

2.0 

7.0 

8. 

5 

1.2 

.3 

.3 

.2 

2.0 

7.0 

8. 

6 

1.2 

.3 

.3 

.2 

2.0 

6.8 

7. 

7 

1.2 

.3 

.3 

.2 

2.0 

6.6 

7. 

8 

1.2 

.3 

.3 

.2 

2.0 

6.4 

7. 

9 

1.2 

.3 

.3 

.2 

2.0 

6.2 

7. 

10 

1.2 

.3 

.3 

_2 

2.0 

6.0 

T. 

;      PART  in. 

•    General  Gare 
and  Management  of  Swine. 


CHAPTER  XV. 
THE  BREEDING  SEASON. 

Nature  apparently  has  determined  that  animals  be  born 
in  the  spring  of  the  year,  because  this  is  the  most  favor- 
able season.  Since  there  is  considerable  difference  in  the 
length  of  the  period  of  gestation,  the  period  from  the  time 
the  dam  is  bred  until  the  offspring  is  born  of  different 
animals,  they  are  bred  at  different  times  of  the  year.  Do- 
mesticated swine,  however,  come  in  heat  at  any  time  and 
may  be  bred  to  suit  the  wishes  of  the  breeder. 

NUMBER  OF  LITTERS  PER  YEAR. 

In  former  times  most  of  the  swine  of  the  country  were 
produced  by  having  the  sows  farrow  only  one  litter  of 
pigs  per  year,  and  these  were  usually  farrowed  at  the  nat- 
ural time,  namely,  the  spring.  During  later  years  some 
breeders  have  adopted  the  policy  of  raising  two  litters  a 
year,  one  in  the  spring  and  one  in  the  fall.  This  has  occa- 
sioned considerable  discussion  in  regard  to  the  policy  of 
having  a  sow  produce  two  litters  a  year  as  compared  to 
one.  It  is  sometimes  argued  that  the  sow  cannot  produce 
more  than  one  good  litter  per  year,  and  that  if  she  is  re- 
quired to  produce  two,  it  is  such  a  drain  upon  her  and  will 
reduce  her  to  such  an  extent  in  condition  and  vitality  that 
she  will  neither  produce  good  pigs  nor  remain  prolific  as 
long  as  she  should.  From  a  study  of  the  facts,  this  does 
not  seem  to  be  necessarily  true. 

In  the  production  of  beef  cattle  the  cow  is  usually  re- 
quired to  produce  one  calf  per  year.  The  period  of  ges- 


210  SWINE 

tation  with  a  cow  is  approximately  nine  months,  and  the 
period  of  lactation  from  nine  to  eleven  months.  Thus  it 
will  be  seen  that  a  cow  for  a  considerable  portion  of  each 
year  is  caring  for  two  offspring  at  the  same  time ;  one  is 
being  developed  within  while  the  other  is  being  cared  for 
at  the  udder.  In  dairying  operations  this  is  still  more  in- 
tensified. Such  a  cow  has  been  developed  to  give  suffi- 
cient milk  for  two  or  three  calves  which  is  taken  from  her 
artificially  and  used  for  commercial  purposes  while  at 
the  same  time  she  is  producing  a  calf  annually.  In  the 
case  of  a  mare  conditions  are  the  same  as  for  the  beef  cow 
except  that  the  period  of  gestation  is  somewhat  longer, 
and  the  period  of  lactation  not  quite  so  long. 

A  sow  may  be  bred,  and  then  may  farrow  and  raise  her 
litter  within  six  months'  time.  Thus  she  can  produce  two 
litters  a  year  and  never  be  caring  for  more  than  one  at  a 
time.  With  this  in  view  it  can  easily  be  seen  then  that  a 
sow,  with  proper  care  and  feed,  should  be  able  to  produce 
two  litters  a  year  as  well,  or  even  better,  than  the  cow 
can  produce  one  calf  a  year.  All  this  is  borne  out  by  the 
facts,  namely,  that  if  sows  are  properly  fed  and  cared  for 
after  coming  to  maturity,  they  can  produce  two  litters 
annually  and  do  it  apparently  just  as  well  as  to  produce 
only  one.  If  there  is  any  difference  the  advantages  seem 
to  be  in  favor  of  two  litters  per  year,  because  if  the  sow  is 
allowed  to  go  over  one  season,  or  produce  only  one  litter 
per  year,  she  is  likely  not  to  be  so  sure  a  breeder  as  if  she 
were  bred  immediately  after  weaning  the  litter. 

The  arguments  for  the  statement  that  sows  can  pro- 
duce only  one  good  litter  per  year  apparently  originated 
from  the  fact  that  very  often  swine  are  not  as  well  cared 
for  as  they  should  be  and  are  considered  only  as  the  scav- 
engers of  the  farm,  allowed  to  get  along  as  best  they  can 


THE   BREEDING  SEASON  211 

on  what  waste  feed  they  are  able  to  gather.  Under  such 
conditions,  of  course,  it  takes  a  sow  the  second  six 
months  to  recover  what  she  loses  during  the  previous 
six  months  during  which  time  she  is  raising  her  litter. 

WHEN  TO  BREED. 

The  question  naturally  presents  itself  as  to  what  time 
of  the  year  a  sow  should  be  bred.  This  will  depend  upon 
a  considerable  number  of  conditions. 

Show  Hogs. — For  the  small  number  of  breeders  who 
are  in  the  business  of  producing  pure  bred  hogs  for  the 
show  ring,  this  has  been  in  a  large  measure  arbitrarily  de- 
termined. It  is  the  rule  of  show  and  fair  associations  of 
the  north  that  the  age  of  hogs  shown  during  the  fall  show 
season  shall  be  counted  from  the  first  of  March  of  each 
year,  and  from  the  first  of  September.  In  the  south  it  is 
one  month  later.  Accordingly  a  pig  farrowed  on  or  after 
March  1  may  be  exhibited  during  the  fall  show  season,  in 
the  "under  six  months"  class.  Thus  it  is  seen  that  a  hog 
shown  in  this  class,  as  for  instance  in  the  International 
Live  Stock  Exposition,  which  is  held  about  December 
first,  may  be  nine  months  old.  This  fact  deceives  many 
people,  for  when  going  around  among  the  pens  having 
hogs  in  the  "under  six  months"  class,  that  weigh  300 
pounds,  they  marvel  at  the  size  of  such  animals,  thinking 
that  they  are  less  than  six  months  old,  as  the  classification 
states,  when  in  reality  they  may  be  nine  months  old. 
Likewise  an  animal  that  is  to  be  shown  in  the  "under  a 
year"  class  must  be  born  on  or  after  September  1  of  the 
previous  season ;  hence  it  is  anywhere  from  twelve  to  fif- 
teen months  old.  On  account  of  these  rulings  pigs  that 
are  produced  for  show  purposes  are  farrowed  as  nearly  as 
possible  after  the  first  of  March  or  the  first  of  September. 


212  SWINE 

A  pig  farrowed  on  the  last  day  of  February  would  be 
only  one  day  older  than  one  farrowed  on  the  first  day  of 
March,  but  would  have  to  show  in  the  "under  a  year" 
class  as  compared  to  one  farrowed  on  March  first  being 
able  to  show  in  the  "under  six  months"  class.  While 
this  ought  not  to  be  such  a  great  handicap,  nevertheless 
it  is  in  many  cases  considerable  of  a  disadvantage  because 
size  is  a  point  of  great  importance  and  with  many  judges 
exercises  much  more  influence  than  it  should,  especially 
under  such  conditions  as  when  the  pigs  are  of  different 
ages.  For  the  majority  of  breeders  the  conditions  that 
determine  the  time  at  which  sows  are  to  be  bred  are  of  an 
entirely  different  nature. 

Market  Requirements. — The  time  at  which  pigs  for  the 
pork  market  are  to  be  marketed  should  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration in  determining  the  time  at  which  they  are  to  be 
farrowed.  The  market  requirements  in  general  are  for 
light  hogs  during  the  summer  season  and  for  heavy  hogs 
during  the  winter.  While  it  is  true  that  hogs  of  any  de- 
scription and  of  any  weight  sell  at  all  seasons  of  the  year, 
the  summer  season  is  called  the  light  hog  season  because 
hogs  of  this  description  are  in  greatest  demand,  while  the 
winter  season  is  the  heavy  hog  season  because  such  hogs 
are  in  greater  demand  at  that  time  of  the  year.  The  sum- 
mer is  the  light  hog  season  because  at  this  time  of  the 
year  many  hogs  are  cut  up  for  the  fresh  meat  trade. 

A  light  hog,  weighing  150  to  250  pounds,  makes  a  bet- 
ter and  more  desirable  cut  of  fresh  meat  than  a  heavier 
hog  would.  Meat  of  this  description  finds  various  out- 
lets, such  as  to  foreign  markets,  to  the  south  and  east,  and 
even  back  to  the  country  where  hogs  are  produced,  a  de- 
mand which  is  largely  curtailed  during  the  winter  season 
because  of  home  supply.  Hogs  that  are  produced  in  the 


THE   BREEDING   SEASON  213 

mentioned  places,  especially  in  the  east  and  south,  are 
usually  of  this  type  and  are  slaughtered  during  the  fall 
and  early  winter  to  supply  the  home  demand.  After  these 
are  consumed,  the  general  pork  markets  must  be  called 
upon  for  further  supply,  which  creates  a  demand  for  fresh 
meat  together  with  the  demand  that  comes  from  the  other 
parts  of  the  country  and  which  is  more  or  less  constant. 
The  winter  season  demands  heavy  hogs  because  Jthis  is 
the  packing  season  and  heavy  hogs  are  better  adapted  to 
this  purpose  than  light  hogs.  They  are  better  because 
they  contain  less  water  in  the  carcass  and  therefore  more 
nutrient  value,  and  also  they  contain  more  fat.  The  fat- 
tened pig,  except  for  the  production  of  bacon,  is  better 
adapted  to  packing  purposes  than  the  lean  pig.  The  older 
and  heavier  the  hog,  as  a  rule,  the  more  fat  he  contains ; 
consequently  the  packing  season  during  winter  calls  for 
heavy  hogs. 

Pork  Hogs. — The  time  at  which  a  sow  is  bred  should  be 
such  that  the  pigs  can  be  taken  to  market  at  a  desirable 
weight  when  the  market  for  such  hogs  is  the  best.  This 
naturally  brings  into  consideration  the  manner  in  which 
these  pigs  are  to  be  fed  or  the  length  of  the  feeding  pe- 
riod. If  pigs  are  to  be  well  fed  from  the  time  they  learn 
to  eat  so  as  to  get  them  to  the  greatest  weight  in  the 
shortest  time,  the  sow  may  have  to  be  bred  at  an  entirely 
different  time  than  would  be  the  case  if  the  pigs  were  to 
be  fed  more  slowly. 

The  time  at  which  the  sow  is  to  be  bred  will  also  de- 
pend in  a  large  measure  upon  the  available  shelter.  If 
comfortable  hog  houses  are  at  hand,  the  sow  may  be  bred 
to  farrow  earlier  in  the  spring  of  the  year  than  if  such 
shelter  were  not  at  hand. 

The  number  of  litters  per  year  also  exercises  an  influ- 


214  SWINE 

ence  in  this  regard.  If  only  one  litter  per  year  is  to  be 
produced,  the  sow  may  be  bred  to  farrow  when  the  season 
is  most  congenial,  but  if  she  is  to  produce  two  litters  per 
year,  the  fall  season  will  also  have  to  be  taken  into  consid- 
eration. Under  the  system  of  feeding  in  common  prac- 
tice, a  winter  pig  cannot  be  as  successfully  handled  as  a 
spring  pig.  As  already  outlined,  this  apparently  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  such  pigs  receive  too  little  protein  and 
water  as  well  as  not  enough  exercise.  Under  such  condi- 
tions fall  pigs  should  be  farrowed  as  early  as  possible, 
which  would  naturally  also  require  that  the  spring  crop 
be  farrowed  early. 

Age  of  Gilts. — The  age  at  which  a  gilt  is  first  to  be  bred 
was  discussed  in  Chapter  14  in  connection  with  feeding, 
but  in  general  it  may  be  said  that  a  sow  should  not  pro- 
duce more  than  two  litters  during  the  first  two  years  of 
her  life.  These  may  be  farrowed  at  one,  or  one  and  one- 
half  years,  and  two  years  of  age  respectively.  By  this 
time  she  will  practically  be  mature  and  can  produce  two 
litters  per  year  thereafter.  In  general,  then,  the  time  at 
which  a  sow  is  to  be  bred  is  controlled  by  the  time  at 
which  the  pigs  are  to  be  marketed. 

CONDITION  OF  SIRE  AND  DAM. 

The  condition  of  the  sire  and  more  especially  the  con- 
dition of  the  dam  during  the  breeding  season  exercises 
considerable  influence  on  the  offspring.  In  order  to  pro- 
duce the  best  results  the  condition  of  both  sire  and  dam 
should  be  such  that  they  are  healthy,  thrifty,  and  vigor- 
ous. As  already  stated,  the  tendency  of  swine  is  to  trans- 
mit their  characteristics  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  to  their 
immediate  offspring.  If  a  sow  is  too  thin  in  flesh  at  the 
breeding  season,  she  may  not  come  in  heat  at  all,  or,  if 


THE  BREEDING  SEASON  215 

too  fat,  she  may  be  difficult  to  get  with  pig.  Further- 
more, the  size  of  the  litter,  as  well  as  the  size,  thriftiness 
and  vigor  of  the  pigs,  depends  in  large  measure  upon  the 
condition  of  the  sow  not  only  at  breeding  time,  but  dur- 
ing the  entire  period  of  gestation.  It  is  considered  that  if 
a  sow 'is  in  a  state  of  rapid  improvement  at  the  time  she 
is  being  bred,  and  is  vigorous,  active,  and  in  high  flesh 
during  the  period  of  gestation,  she  will  produce  the  larg- 
est litter  and  also  the  best  pigs. 

Prolificacy. — Prolificacy,  then,  or  the  number  of  pigs 
that  will  be  farrowed  by  a  sow  is  largely  a  matter  of  feed- 
ing and  care.  If  a  sow  is  properly  handled,  she  will  be 
prolific  and  produce  a  large  number  of  pigs  per  litter, 
while  otherwise  she  will  not.  Tfris  of  course  is  consider- 
ably influenced  by  selection.  Hogs  of  proper  conforma- 
tion and  from  prolific  strains  will  produce  more  pigs  per 
litter  than  those  selected  otherwise. 

USEFUL  AGE  OF  SIRE  AND  DAM. 

The  question  is  often  asked  how  long  a  breeding  ani- 
mal should  be  retained  in  a  herd.  This  can  be  answered 
most  directly  and  perhaps  in  the  best  way  by  saying  that 
a  breeding  animal  should  be  retained  in  the  herd  as  long 
as  good  results  are  produced  by  it.  Both  sire  and  dam 
may  be  misused  to  the  extent  that  they  will  not  do  good 
service  for  more  than  a  few  years. 

The  Sire. — In  order  that  a  boar  may  be  of  the  greatest 
service,  he  should  not  be  used  except  to  a  very  slight  ex- 
tent, until  he  has  come  to  maturity.  He  may  be  used  on 
a  very  few  sows  at  the  age  of  eight  or  nine  months,  and 
may  be  used  on  a  few  more  when  he  is  one  year  old,  but 
in  general  he  should  not  be  put  to  hard  service  until  he 
has  come  to  maturity  at  about  two  years  of  age.  Even 


216  SWINE 

then  he  should  not  be  overworked.  One  service  per  day 
is  considered  to  be  sufficient  when  used  for-a  considerable 
length  of  time.  When  used  continuously  the  whole  year, 
this  is  too  much.  In  emergency  cases,  for  a  short  period 
of  time,  two  or  even  more  services  per  day  may  be  al- 
lowed in  the  case  of  a  vigorous  animal,  provided  he  is 
allowed  to  rest  before  and  afterwards. 

The  Dam. — A  sow  is  useful  and  should  remain  in  the 
herd  as  long  as  she  can  produce  and  raise  a  large  litter. 
A  mistake  is  very  often  made  by  retaining  young  sows 
year  after  year  and  selling  the  older  ones.  It  is  argued 
that  after  producing  a  litter  the  sow  will  make  profitable 
gains,  which  is  naturally  very  true,  and  that  she  can  be 
put  in  market  condition  along  with  the  litter  to  good  ad- 
vantage. While  this  is  true,  she  is  also  developing  into 
a  more  valuable  breeding  animal.  When  young  sows  are 
being  kept  year  after  year  the  practice  of  selection,  as  dis- 
cussed in  Chapter  8,  is  very  largely  lost  because  good  in- 
dividuals do  not  appear  in  large  enough  numbers  so  that 
an  entirely  new  breeding  herd  of  good  sows  can  be  se- 
lected year  after  year.  Furthermore,  all  good  appearing 
individuals  are  not  good  breeders  because  they  do  not 
produce  large  litters,  may  not  give  sufficient  milk  to 
nourish  their  litters,  may  not  be  good  mothers  to  care  for 
them  after  farrowing,  etc.  Thus  a  mature  sow  that  has 
been  tried  should  be  kept  in  the  herd  as  long  as  possible. 
This  can  be  done  with  profit,  especially  when  two  litters 
per  year  are  being  produced. 

BREEDING  THE  SOW. 

The  period  of  heat  is  the  time  at  which  a  sow  is  in  sea- 
son and  ready  to  be  bred.  It  usually  occurs  about  every 
twenty-one  days  and,  if  a  sow  is  not  bred,  lasts  for  two  or 
three  days.  The  methods  employed  for  serving  a  sow  are 


THE   BREEDING  SEASON  217 

two — first,  that  which  makes  use  of  the  breeding  crate, 
and  second,  where  the  boar  and  sow  are  allowed  to  run 
together. 

The  breeding  crate  is  useful  when  matings  are  to  be 
made  with  sire  and  dam  of  different  sizes,  and  especially 
if  the  difference  in  size  between  the  animals  is  considera- 
ble. The  crate  is  constructed  so  the  sow  is  confined  and 
cannot  get  away,  with  a  platform  to  the  rear  of  her,  upon 
which  the  boar  stands,  which  may  be  raised  and  lowered. 
While  there  are  several  different  kinds  of  breeding  crates 
on  the  market,  any  home-made  piece  of  apparatus  that 
will  hold  the  sow  in  position  and  either  raise  or  lower  the 
boar,  as  the  case  may  be,  will  answer  the  purpose.  It  is 
generally  considered,  however,  that  this  method  of  breed- 
ing is  more  or  less  artificial  and  not  productive  of  as  good 
results  as  when  the  natural  method  is  employed  and  the 
boar  occupies  the  pasture  with  the  sow.  Under  such  con- 
ditions the  most  favorable  time  to  copulate  will  be  se- 
lected, thus  producing  better  results.  One  of  the  pur- 
poses of  the  breeding  crate  is  to  assist  an  awkward  and 
clumsy  boar  that  cannot  handle  himself.  This  usually 
affords  a  poor  excuse  for  such  a  crate.  If  a  boar  is  prop- 
erly fed  and  kept,  he  will  usually  be  able  to  do  service 
unassisted  by  a  crate.  If  a  breeder  is  producing  pure 
bred  hogs  and  constantly  improving  his  herd,  he  will 
usually  have  good  young  boars  coming  on  that  may  be 
used  on  such  young  gilts  that  are  to  be  bred  and  not  able 
to  support  a  large  old  boar,  thus  rendering  the  breeding 
crate  an  unnecessary  adjunct  in  swine  breeding  opera- 
tions. However,  a  show  boar  that  is  more  or  less  clumsy 
on  account  of  high  condition  may  be  materially  assisted 
by  a  crate,  as  may  also  any  large  or  small  boar  that  is  tc 
be  used  on  small  and  large  sows  respectively. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 
FARROWING  TIME. 

The  period  of  gestation  is  approximately  114  days,  or 
six  days  less  than  four  months.  With  some  individuals 
it  may  vary  from  this  a  few  days  one  way  or  the  other, 
even  from  110  to  118  days  and  an  occasional  one  will  get 
outside  of  this  limit;  but  the  average  is  as  stated.  The 
largest  number  farrow  at  this  time,  and  as  the  distance 
in  time  from  this  point  is  increased  either  one  way  or  the 
other,  the  number  that  farrow  is  gradually  decreased.  If 
pigs  are  farrowed  much  earlier  than  this,  even  though 
it  may  not  be  more  than  a  week,  there  is  danger  of  their 
being  farrowed  dead. 

FEEDING  BEFORE  AND  AFTER  FARROWING. 

If  the  sow  is  properly  fed  and  handled  before  and  after 
farrowing,  the  difficulties  that  are  sometimes  experienced 
at  this  time  should  be  reduced  to  a  minimum,  and  in  most 
cases  there  will  be  no  need  whatever  for  forceps  such  as 
are  often  found  in  the  hands  of  breeders. 

A  good  sow  is  one,  like  a  good  cow,  that  will  convert  a 
considerable  portion  of  her  feed  into  milk.  If  such  a  sow 
is  heavily  fed  immediately  before  she  farrows,  she  will 
produce  a  large  quantity  of  milk  which  is  likely  to  cause 
either  milk  fever  or  caked  udder,  and  may  result  dis- 
astrously for  the  pigs  after  farrowing  even  if  not  to  the 
sow  herself.  If  after  farrowing  the  sow  is  again  fed  too 
much,  difficulty  is  experienced  because  at  this  time  the 
pigs  are  small  and  can  take  but  a  small  quantity  of  milk. 

(218) 


FARROWING  TIME  219 

Consequently  the  sow  should  not  be  fed  more  than  enough 
to  enable  the  pigs  to  take  what  milk  is  produced.  To  ob- 
tain good  results,  then,  the  sow  should  be  taken  in  hand 
at  least  one  week  before  she  is  due  to  farrow.  She  should 
be  put  into  the  place  where  she  is  to  farrow,  and  this 
should  be  made  as  comfortable  and  convenient  as  possi- 
ble. Her  feed  should  be  gradually  reduced,  while  at  the 
same  time  the  bulkiness  and  nitrogenous  parts  of  the  ra- 
tion should  be  relatively  increased.  This  will  satisfy  her 
appetite  and  supply  protein  to  prevent  the  breaking  down 
of  the  protein  tissue  of  the  body. 

Immediately  after  farrowing  the  sow  should  be  left 
as  quietly  as  possible  and  not  be  disturbed  at  all  during 
the  first  twenty-four  hours  except  to  give  her  an  oc- 
casional drink  of  water.  She  needs  no  dry  feeds  of  any 
kind  during  the  first  day,  and  the  water  that  is  given  her 
should  not  be  too  cold.  On  the  second  day  after  farrow- 
ing she  may  be  given  a  very  light  feed.  This  should  be 
increased  during  several  weeks  thereafter.  With  young 
sows  the  feed  may  be  increased  so  as  to  get  them  on  full 
feed  in  about  two  weeks  after  they  have  farrowed.  In 
the  case  of  old  sows  this  period  should  be  extended  to 
three  weeks.  With  this  practice  the  milk  giving  func- 
tions are  not  stimulated  to  so  great  an  extent  that  the 
litter  cannot  take  the  entire  quantity,  and  as  the  pigs  get 
older  and  require  more,  more  milk  will  be  produced  and 
the  best  results  are  possible.  See  pages  205  and  206. 

When  sows  eat  their  pigs  it  may  be  the  result  of  habit 
or  of  improper  feeding.  When  fed  too  much  it  may  bring 
about  a  feverish  condition  in  the  udder  and  body  as  a 
whole  which  might  cause  an  abnormal  appetite  for  ma- 
terial as  found  in  the  carcass  of  a  young  pig.  If  too  little 
protein  is  fed  the  sow  might  take  this  means  of  supplying 


220  SWINE 

the  deficiency.   If  pig-eating  has  become  a  habit  the  best 
course  is  to  dispose  of  the  particular  sow  to  the  butcher. 

THE  LITTER. 

At  the  time  the  sow  farrows  the  attendant  should  be 
present.  Sometimes  slight  assistance  may  be  given  that 
will  help  materially  in  saving  a  large  litter.  Several  prac- 
tices are  in  vogue  at  this  time.  Most  breeders  simply 
place  the  pigs  to  the  udder  of  the  dam  as  soon  as  they 
are  farrowed,  which  in  general  is  good  practice  and  can- 
not be  improved  upon.  If,  however,  the  sow  is  of  a  nerv- 
ous disposition  and  is  restless,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
gather  up  the  pigs  as  fast  as  farrowed  and  take  them 
away  for  the  time  being.  In  such  a  case  they  should  be 
put  into  a  dry  warm  place  to  prevent  chilling,  and  then  be 
taken  back  to  the  dam  when  she  is  through  and  has  set- 
tled down  and  become  quiet. 

At  about  four  weeks  of  age  the  pigs,  since  they  con- 
tinue to  grow  and  since  the  sow's  milk  does  not  continue 
to  increase,  should  learn  to  eat  either  with  their  dam  or  at 
a  separate  trough  and  be  fed  as  previously  outlined. 

HOW  MANY  PIGS  PER  SOW. 

From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  seen  that  the  results  ob- 
tained from  a  brood  sow  depend  very  largely  upon  the 
way  she  is  fed  immediately  before  and  immediately  after 
farrowing.  If  a  sow  is  fed  so  much  immediately  after 
farrowing  that  the  pigs  cannot  take  the  entire  quantity 
of  milk,  it  may  either  result  in  causing  her  to  dry  up  en- 
tirely, or  else  in  bringing  on  scours  with  the  pigs.  Other 
considerations,  however,  have  an  important  bearing. 

In  case  the  sow  farrows  a  small  litter,  or  in  case  most 
of  the  pigs  are  lost  after  farrowing,  leaving  her  only  a 
few,  it  is  good  policy  either  to  give  her  some  more  pigs 


FARROWING   TIME  221 

or  to  take  these  away  from  her,  especially  if  she  is  a 
young  sow.  This  is  not  necessarily  true  with  old  sows, 
but  if  a  young  sow  is  allowed  to  go  through  the  first  one 
or  two  periods  of  lactation  with  only  two  or  three  pigs, 
the  likelihood  is  that  she  will  never  be  able  to  raise  more 
thereafter.  The  part  of  her  udder  suckled  by  these  pigs 
will  be  developed  and  the  rest  of  it  will  become  dormant 
and  not  produce  sufficient  milk  thereafter  to  allow  a 
larger  number  of  pigs  to  develop  properly.  Consequent- 
ly, it  is  of  greatest  importance  that  young  sows  not  only 
be  fed  properly,  but  that  they  also  either  be  required  to 
raise  the  proper  number  of  pigs  or  to  raise  none  at  all. 
Herein  lies  a  considerable  advantage  in  having  a  number 
of  sows  farrow  at  the  same  time.  This  practice  not  only 
allows  a  proper  distribution  of  the  pigs  among  the  various 
sows,  but  also  produces  pigs  of  the  same  size  which  will 
sell  to  better  advantage  when  ready  for  market  than  will 
a  bunch  that  is  made  up  of  individuals  of  various  sizes. 
It  is  frequently  said  that  a  sow  cannot  successfully  raise 
more  than  five  or  six  pigs.  But  if  she  is  properly  selected, 
developed  and  fed  at  the  time,  there  is  no  reason  why  she 
should  not  raise  ten  or  twelve  pigs. 

HANDLING  THE  SOW  AND  LITTER. 

A  sow  should  at  all  times  be  handled  with  the  greatest 
possible  care  and  gentleness  and  if  properly  handled  will 
be  quiet  and  easy  to  manage.  Her  temperament  should 
be  in  such  a  state  that  the  attendant  can  go  into  her  pen 
at  any  time,  either  during  the  time  she  farrows  or  there- 
after, and  handle  either  her  or  her  pigs  without  the  slight- 
est disturbance.  If  properly  done  this  is  possible. 

As  previously  noted,  the  influence  of  exercise  upon  the 
metabolism  of  the  hog  is  very  great  and  important;  hence 


222  SWINE 

the  litter  should  be  provided  with  some  means  of  obtain- 
ing exercise.  One  way  of  doing  this,  especially  with 
breeders  of  pure  bred  hogs,  is  to  put  the  sow  and  her  lit- 
ter into  a  pasture  by  themselves.  If  the  season  is  favora- 
ble, considerable  exercise  will  be  taken.  Under  ordinary 
farm  conditions,  however,  pastures  are  not  numerous 
enough  to  allow  each  sow  and  litter  to  have  one  by  them- 
selves, consequently  a  larger  number  must  be  allowed  to 
run  together.  If  in  such  cases  the  sow  is  kept  confined 
with  her  litter  during  the  first  two  weeks  after  farrowing, 
no  great  harm  will  result  from  the  lack  of  exercise  and 
the  pigs  will  become  acquainted  with  their  dam  so  that 
after  this  the  entire  family  may  be  let  out  in  company 
with  others  and  experience  no  serious  difficulty.  This 
would  be  true  especially  if  the  sow  as  well  as  the  sow  and 
litter  combined  were  properly  fed.  If  sows  with  their  lit- 
ters are  let  out  too  soon  in  company  with  others,  and  if 
they  are  not  well  enough  fed,  the  pigs  may  run  about  and 
do  considerable  robbing ;  that  is,  the  pigs  of  one  sow  that 
do  not  get  sufficient  milk  will  rob  the  pigs  of  another 
sow.  Naturally  the  older  and  larger  pigs  will  rob  the 
younger  and  smaller  ones.  / 

BLACK  TEETH. 

Very  often  when  pigs  are  farrowed  they  have  what  is 
called  black  teeth — that  is,  two  long  black  teeth  on  each 
side  of  the  upper  and  lower  jaws  respectively.  As  soon 
as  the  pigs  are  farrowed  and  take  their  place  at  the  udder, 
they  sometimes  do  considerable  fighting,  each  pig  striv- 
ing to  get  the  best  teat.  In  so  doing  they  may  strike  each 
other  and  start  trouble  by  making  sores  on  their  jaws 
which  collect  dirt  and  disease  germs,  causing  inflamma- 
tion. At  other  times  they  injure  the  udder  of  the  sow  to 


FARROWING  TIME  223 

such  an  extent  that  she  becomes  restless  and  may  not  al- 
low them  to  suckle  at  all,  or  perhaps  will  get  up  and 
trample  the  pigs  to  death.  To  avoid  the  trouble  caused 
by  these  teeth  they  should  be  clipped  off  as  soon  as  the 
pigs  are  farrowed.  This  may  be  done  very  nicely  by  tak- 
ing the  pig  in  the  left  hand,  opening  its  mouth  with  the 
forefinger  and  thumb,  and  clipping  these  teeth  off  with  a 
small  pair  of  tin  shears  or  molar  pliers. 

IDENTIFICATION  MARKS. 

Some  breeders,  especially  those  who  have  only  a  small 
number,  can  identify  all  the  pigs  by  means  of  the  various 
natural  markings  they  have,  such  as  the  white  points  of 
black  pigs.  In  the  case  of  other  breeds,  where  the  color 
is  solid,  say  black,  red>  or  white,  the  pigs  are  not  so  easily 
identified,  or  at  any  rate  it  is  a  difficult  matter  to  keep  in 
mind  a  large  number  of  pigs.  Moreover,  if  sows  farrow 
in  adjoining  pens  and  the  fence  is  not  perfectly  tight,  the 
pigs  may  creep  back  and  forth  and  become  more  or  less 
mixed  up.  To  avoid  these  difficulties  pigs  should  be 
marked  as  soon  as  farrowed. 

Several  different  systems  of  markings  are  in  use,  but 
the  system  which  consists  of  nicks  punched  in  the  ears  is 
considered  the  best.  A  small  leather  punch  will  answer 
the  purpose  very  well  for  use  immediately  after  the  pig 
is  farrowed.  When  they  get  a  little  older  or  even  imme- 
diately after  farrowing  a  regular  ear  marking  punch  may 
be  used  to  cut  the  nicks  in  the  ear.  A  hole  should  never 
be  punched  through  the  ear  because  this  will  soon  heal 
over  and  destroy  the  mark.  The  punch  mark  should  al- 
ways cut  out  the  edge  of  the  ear  so  that  it  appears  in  the 
form  of  a  nick.  The  inner  part  of  this  should  not  be  at  a 


224  SWINE 

sharp  angle,  but  should  be  rounded,  in  which  form  it  will 
be  maintained  much  better  than  if  cut  at  an  angle. 

EAR  MARKS. 

The  system  of  ear  marks  in  use  at  the  Illinois  Experi- 
ment Station  and  outlined  in  the  cut  (24)  is  as  follows: 
In  looking  for  the  ear  marks  the  hog  is  usually  viewed 
from  the  rear  which  puts  the  right  ear  to  the  right  and 
the  left  ear  to  the  left.  The  thin  part  of  the  ear  is  called 
the  lower  part,  the  part  next  to  the  head  is  called  the 
base  and  the  outer  part  is  called  the  tip.  One  nick  in  the 
base  of  the  lower  part  of  the  right  ear  represents  num- 
ber 1.  Two  nicks  at  the  same  place  represent  number 
2.  One  nfck  in  the  tip  of  the  lower  side  of  the  right  ear 
represents  3.  One  in  the  base  and  one  in  the  tip,  4.  Two 
in  the  base  and  one  in  the  tip,  5.  Two  in  the  tip,  6.  Two 
in  the  tip  and  one  in  the  base,  7.  Two  in  the  tip  and  two 
in  the  base,  8,  and  one  in  the  center  part  of  the  lower  side 
of  the  right  ear,  9.  This  is  very  easy  to  learn  and  to 
remember  as,  by  learning  the  marks  for  numbers  1,  3  and 
9,  together  with  a  few  combinations,  the  entire  system  is 
in  mind.  Number  2  is  made  up  of  twice  1  and  number  3 
is  new;  number  4  is  gotten  by  adding  1  and  3;  number  5 
is  obtained  by  adding  2  and  3 ;  number  6  is  obtained  by 
taking  2  times  3,  and  number  7  is  obtained  by  adding  6 
and  1,  while  number  8  is  obtained  by  taking  2  times  4. 
Number  9  is  new  and  number  10  occupies  the  same  posi- 
tion in  the  left  ear  as  number  1  does  in  the  right  ear. 

To  facilitate  this  still  further,  number  5  being  made  up 
of  two  nicks  in  the  base  and  one  at  the  tip  is  somewhat 
comparable  to  the  figure  5.  Number  7  having  two  nicks 
at  the  tip  and  one  in  the  base  is  similar  to  the  figure  7. 
Thus  the  units  are  represented  in  the  lower  side  of  the 


FARROWING  TIME  225 


ft    fl    d    d 


( 


(     f     (I 


(I         rt    rf 


CUT   24.— AN    EAR-MARKING    SYSTEM. 

right  ear,  the  tens  are  represented  in  an  exactly  similar 
manner  in  the  left  ear,  and  it  is  seen  that  .99  hogs  may  be 
marked  with  nicks  punched  in  the  lower  side  of  the  two 
ears. 


226  SWINE 

For  ordinary  purposes  25  to  50  brood  sows  are'  suffi- 
cient for  a  breeding  herd.  As  soon  as  the  pigs  are  far- 
rowed the  entire  number  in  the  litter  are  given  the  same 
mark  as  their  dam.  Thus  the  litter  is  easily  identified 
at  all  times  and  after  being  developed,  if  some  of  the  indi- 
viduals are  to  be  retained  in  the  breeding  herd,  they  are 
given  an  additional  nick  or  two  in  the  ear  so  as  to  give 
them  a  number  that  is  different  from  that  of  their  dam. 
If  the  pigs  are  sold  either  on  the  open  market  or  for 
breeding  purposes,  no  further  attention  need  be  given  to 
these  nicks  in  the  ears.  Thus  with  a  system  of  ear  mark- 
ing, as  here  outlined,  in  a  breeding  herd  of  approximately 
100  sows,  each  can  be  easily  and  quickly  identified. 

According  to  another  practice  in  use  to  some  extent, 
all  the  individual  pigs  of  a  litter  are  given  separate  marks. 
If  this  be  adopted  as  a  system  of  marking,  the  foregoing 
method  can  still  be  used  by  going  to  the  upper  side  of  the 
left  ear  for  the  hundreds  and  then  to  the  upper  side  of 
the  right  ear  for  the  thousands.  Thus  with  this  system 
of  nicks  in  the  ears,  9,999  pigs  may  be  marked  so  that 
each  one  can  be  readily  identified. 

CASTRATION. 

Castration  consists  in  removing  the  testicles  of  the 
male.  In  the  case  of  pigs  this  is  a  comparatively  simple 
operation  and  may  be  done  by  any  one  with  very  little 
instruction  and  practice.  The  best  time  to  castrate  a  pig 
is  between  five  and  seven  weeks  of  age.  At  this  time  the 
pig  will  be  sufficiently  developed  to  enable  the  breeder 
to  select  the  ones  that  are  to  be  retained  as  sires  in  the 
breeding  herd,  and  at  the  same  time  the  pigs  will  be  small 
enough  to  render  this  task  most  easy  and  the  shock  to 
the  pig  will  be  the  least.  Furthermore,  the  pig  is  still 
with  its  dam  and  is  probably  more  thrifty  and  in  better 


FARROWING   TIME  227 

condition  than  he  will  be  immediately  after  weaning, 
hence  will  receive  less  of  a  set-back  than  he  would  later 
in  life.  By  the  time  the  pig  is  weaned  he  will  have  had 
time  to  recover  from  the  fright  he  received  in  being  cas- 
trated and  be  ready  to  go  ahead  undisturbed  in  the  proc- 
ess of  pork  production. 

A  Normal  Pig. — In  castrating  a  normal  pig  an  incision 
is  made  through  the  skin  of  the  scrotum  and  also  through 
the  membrane  that  encloses  the  testicle.  This  membrane 
is  allowed  to  fall  back  and  is  cut  loose  at  the  inner  part 
of  the  testicle  so  that  the  cords  may  be  pulled  out  to  some 
extent  and  then  cut  off.  They  should  not  be  cut  off 
abruptly,  but  rather  scraped  off.  The  membrane  will  by 
this  time  have  gone  back  into  the  opening  and  the  other 
testicle  is  removed  in  a  similar  manner. 

Before  making  the  incision,  the  place  where  it  is  to  be 
made  should  be  thoroughly  washed  with  an  antiseptic 
solution  of  some  kind,  such  as  the  coal  tar  dips  or  carbolic 
acid.  A  3  to  5  per  cent  solution  will  usually  answer  the 
purpose.  After  removing  the  testicle  some  of  this  solu- 
tion should  also  be  put  into  the  wound  and  the  pig  given 
his  liberty.  In  all  operations  of  this  kind  the  incision 
should  be  made  low  enough  in  the  scrotum  to  allow  any 
fluid  from  within  to  run  out  when  the  pig  stands  on  his 
feet.  A  separate  incision  should  be  made  for  each  testicle 
and  the  cut  should  always  be  vertical  and  never  cross  the 
median  line.  The  knife  that  is  used  for  this  operation 
should  be  thoroughly  clean  and  the  hands  should  also  be 
repeatedly  washed  in  the  antiseptic  solution.  If  these 
conditions  prevail,  there  is  no  danger  of  anybody  losing 
many  pigs  as  a  result  of  castration. 

Many  people  are  so  imbued  with  superstition,  even  at 
the  present  day,  that  they  select  a  certain  phase  of  the 


228  SWINE 

moon  in  which  to  do  this  work.  While  there  is  no  rela- 
tion between  the  way  a  pig  will  thrive  after  being  oper- 
ated on  and  the  phase  of  the  moon,  there  is  considerable 
relation  between  the  condition  of  a  pig  in  such  a  case  and 
the  weather  conditions.  The  weather  at  the  time  of  the 
operation  should  be  favorable.  It  should  not  be  exceed- 
ingly hot,  neither  too  cold.  It  should  not  be  very  dusty 
or  wet.  In  hot  weather  the  pig  is  likely  to  become  over- 
heated while  in  cold  weather  he  may  lie  around  humped 
up  in  his  nest  and  not  get  sufficient  exercise  for  health. 
If  the  soil  if  very  dry  and  dusty  and  the  pig  compelled  to 
walk  through  dusty  places  or  to  lie  in  a  dusty  pen,  he 
may  get  dust  particles  into  the  wound  which  may  cause 
trouble.  If  it  is  very  wet  so  that  the  pig  is  all  covered 
with  dirt,  or  if  he  gets  into  the  mud  and  wallows,  dirt 
again  may  get  into  the  wound  and  is  quite  likely  to  form 
abscesses  or  cancerous  swellings. 

The  pig  should  be  handled  with  care  even  though  he 
is  only  a  pig.  Cases  are  known  where  the  pig,  imme- 
diately after  being  castrated,  lay  down  and  died,  appar- 
ently from  the  nervous  shock  or  from  heart  failure  due 
probably  to  rough  treatment.  The  writer  has  known  a 
man  to  castrate  a  large  bunch  of  pigs  single  handed.  In 
this  particular  case  the  pigs  were  stood  on  their  heads  in 
a  nail  keg,  in  which  position  the  operator  could  work  on 
them  conveniently,  but  this  manner  of  holding  is  not 
humane  treatment  and  should  not  be  practiced. 

Two  persons  can  work  to  the  best  advantage  in  cas- 
trating pigs.  The  attendant  simply  goes  into  the  pen  and 
picks  up  the  pig  and  holds  it  in  his  arm,  taking  the  right 
hind  and  front  feet  in  his  right  hand  and  the  left  hind 
and  front  feet  in  his  left  hand,  having  the  pig  lie  on  its 
back  in  his  right  arm.  In  this  position  the  pig  may  be 


FARROWING  TIME  229 

held  across  the  fence  and  allowed  to  rest  on  the  upper 
rail,  while  the  operator  standing  outside  can  perform 
very  quickly  and  conveniently.  In  the  case  of  larger  pigs, 
they  may  be  laid  on  their  back  and  the  attendant  may  sit 
astride  of  their  neck  with  the  front  feet  as  well  as  the 
hind  feet  of  the  pig  in  front  of  the  attendant.  The  hind 
feet  are  then  held,  one  by  each  hand,  and  pulled  forward 
a  little,  which  again  puts  the  pig  in  a  splendid  position 
for  the  operation. 

Mature  boars  cannot  be  held  so  easily  and  must  be 
tied.  If  properly  done,  a  man  single  handed  can  castrate 
the  largest  boar  living.  One  way  to  do  this  is  as  follows : 
A  strong  small  rope  should  be  placed  around  the  pastern 
of  one  front  foot  while  the  hog  is  eating  or  otherwise 
unaware  of  what  is  about  to  happen.  With  the  rope 
securely  fastened  at  this  point,  the  hog  may  be  thrown 
and  if  his  front  feet  are  kept  off  the  ground  he  cannot 
rise.  After  this  the  rope  is  drawn  around  one  hind  foot, 
then  around  the  other  front  foot,  and  lastly  around  the 
other  hind  foot.  The  four  feet  are  securely  tied  together. 
In  such  a  position  the  hog  cannot  rise,  and  cannot  help 
himself  and  the  operator  may  proceed  undisturbed.  With 
the  hog  lying  on  his  left  side,  the  operator  standing  at  the 
back  of  the  hog  holds  the  knife  in  his  right  hand,  and 
uses  his  left  hand  to  hold  the  scrotum  in  position.  To 
facilitate  matters  a  little  more,  the  rope  with  which  the 
feet  are  tied  may  be  fastened  somewhere  overhead  to 
keep  them  slightly  off  the  ground. 

Another  way  to  hold  a  large  boar  is  by  means  of  a  rope 
on  his  snout  as  described  later  in  connection  with  putting 
rings  in  the  snout  to  prevent  a  hog  from  rooting. 

Ruptured  Pigs. — Ruptured  boar  pigs  (those  ruptured 
in  the  scrotum)  may  be  castrated  so  as  to  make  just  as 


230  SWINE 

good  barrows  as  though  they  never  were  ruptured.  The 
best  way  to  do  this  is  to  proceed  in  the  same  way  as  in 
castrating  a  normal  pig  except  that  the  incision  is  made 
only  through  the  skin  of  the  scrotum  and  not  through 
the  membrane  containing  the  testicle.  When  the  incision 
is  made  through  the  skin,  the  testicle,  together  with  the 
membrane  that  encloses  it,  is  taken  out,  while  at  the  same 
time  the  intestine  contained  in  this  is  worked  back.  Be- 
fore beginning,  however,  the  pig  should  be  held  with  his 
head  low  and  the  rear  part  high  and  the  intestine  should 
be  thoroughly  worked  back  into  the  abdomen.  After  tak- 
ing out  the  testicle,  together  with  the  membrane  contain- 
ing it,  it  is  drawn  out  to  a  convenient  distance  and  a 
string  tied  securely  around  the  cord  which  is  enclosed  in 
the  membrane.  This  string  should  first  be  thoroughly 
sterilized  or  soaked  in  antiseptic  solution.  It  should  be 
strong  and  securely  tied.  After  tying  it  in  this  manner 
the  membrane  and  cord  are  cut  off  to  the  rear  of  the  point 
where  tied.  This  removes  the  entire  testicle,  together 
with  the  membrane  enclosing  it.  The  string  is  then  cut 
off  sufficiently  long  that  when  the  cord  goes  back  into 
the  body  the  end  of  the  string  will  still  hang  out.  Thus 
the  incision  on  the  outside  is  kept  open  until  the  cord 
sloughs  off  at  the  point  where  it  is  tied  and  the  string 
comes  out.  If  it  is  slow  in  coming  out,  it  may  be  taken 
hold  of  and  pulled  out  after  a  week  or  two.  By  this  means 
the  intestines  that  formerly  came  out  through  the  same 
opening  through  which  the  cord  of  the  testicle  passed  are 
kept  within  the  abdomen  and  the  pig  will  be  as  smooth 
and  nice  a  barrow  as  though  he  were  never  ruptured. 

SPAYING. 

Formerly  this  operation  upon  sows  was  in  vogue.     It 
consists  in  the  removal  of  the  ovaries  so  that  the  sow  will 


FARROWING  TIME  231 

not  come  in  heat,  which  is  supposed  to  make  her  a  better 
feeder.  This  operation,  when  resorted  to,  should  be  done 
by  a  trained  veterinarian,  as  it  is  quite  difficult  and  con- 
sists in  opening  the  abdomen  of  the  hog  at  the  side  from 
which  point  the  ovaries  are  removed.  However,  the  prac- 
tice in  general  is  obsolete.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  hogs 
nowadays  are  fattened  so  rapidly  and  taken  to  market  at 
such  an  early  age  that  the  advantage  to  be  gained  by  such 
a  practice  is  not  sufficient  to  offset  the  difficulties  en- 
countered. In  the  case  of  young  sows  that  are  being  well 
fed  they  may  not  come  in  heat,  at  least  not  very  often, 
by  the  time  they  are  ready  for  market  at  8  or  9  months 
of  age.  In  the  case  of  mature  sows,  the  fattening  process 
proceeds  so  rapidly  that  the  period  of  heat  does  not  oc- 
cur often  enough  to  do  any  particular  harm. 

RECORDING. 

In  order  to  be  called  pure  bred  a  pig  must  be  recorded; 
that,  is,  the  breeding  of  the  pig  as  an  individual  must  be 
on  record  in  some  one  of  the  various  swine  record  asso- 
ciations. In  recording  pigs  the  breeder  writes  to  the  sec- 
retary of  the  association  and  obtains  blanks  that  are  used 
for  the  purpose.  Upon  this  blank  the  date  at  which  the 
pig  was  farrowed,  as  well  as  the  number  of  pigs  in  the  lit- 
ter, the  sire,  the  dam,  etc.,  are  entered.  A  space  is  also 
provided  for  the  natural  marks  that  occur  on  some  breeds, 
such  as  the  white  markings  on  some  black  breeds.  Upon 
rilling  out  one  of  these  blanks  for  each  pig,  and  sending  it 
to  the  secretary  of  the  association,  together  with  the  fee 
that  is  charged  for  recording,  the  pig  is  recorded  and  may 
be  sold  as  a  pure  bred.  The  fee  charged  for  recording 
usually  is  from  50  cents  to  $1  for  young  pigs  and  some- 
what higher  for  older  pigs. 


232  SWINE 

A  great  mistake  is  often  made  by  regarding  all  regis- 
tered pigs  as  good  individuals.  This  is  not  necessarily 
true  and  in  fact  is  very  seldom  true.  As  stated  in  Part  I., 
there  is  the  same  degree  of  variation  with  pure  bred  pigs 
that  there  is  with  scrubs  and  grades,  and  the  breeder 
who  is  to  succeed  must  be  just  as  careful  in  selecting  his 
individuals  from  registered  pigs  as  he  would  be  in  select- 
ing his  individuals  if  he  were  simply  producing  pork  hogs 
for  the  market  from  scrubs  or  grades. 

If  only  the  best  individuals  were  recorded,  the  buyer 
would  be  safeguarded  when  buying  a  registered  pig,  but 
many  breeders,  especially  many  of  those  who  have  de- 
veloped a  big  reputation,  have  placed  on  record  and  sell 
for  pure  bred  purposes  more  than  the  best  individuals. 
Besides  this  different  breeders  have  different  types  in 
mind,  and  what  is  considered  a  good  individual  by  one 
breeder  may  not  be  so  considered  by  another. 

Herd  Records. — In  order  to  keep  herd  records  of  pure 
bred  individuals  as  well  as  of  the  offspring,  various  pri- 
vate herd  records  are  in  use.  One  that  was  designed  by 
the  writer  and  is  in  use  at  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station 
is  shown  in  cuts  25  and  26. 

The  first  cut  represents  the  form  that  is  used  to  keep 
the  record  of  the  herd  boars  and  the  breeding  of  the  sows. 
The  first  part  of  this  book  is  given  up  entirely  to  pages 
of  this  kind  wherein  a  record  is  kept  of  herd  boars.  A 
greater  part  of  the  r,est  of  the  book  is  given  up  to  pages  of 
this  character  alternately  with  pages  represented  in 
cut  26. 

As  will  be  seen  this  gives  an  opportunity  to  keep  a 
complete  record  of  the  breeding  of  the  litters  as  well  as 
of  the  individual  pigs  of  the  litter.  It  also  provides  for 
four  litters  on  one  page  which  does  not  necessitate  so 


FARROWING  TIME 

233 

1 

. 

«Q        o 

fi     !                         2     R    S 

U        .M1 

M                                                             i»                      P. 

S     i 

i 

s  ,       w  r    s 

K  V?         E  '         : 

|/7      •  j      ;      ? 

?  '^         i          ^  i 

I 

M 
*i 

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CUT  25.— FORM  FOR  KEEPING  RECORDS  OF  BREEDING  SWINE. 


234 


SWINE 


I 


a  I 


CUT  26.— SCHEME  FOB  DETAILED  RECOEDS. 


FARROWING  TIME  235 

frequent  a  transfer  of  the  record  of  the  dam  as  when  only 
one  litter  is  provided  for  on  a  page.  The  latter  part  of 
the  book  is  given  up  entirely  to  pages  illustrated  in  the 
latter  cut  for  the  purpose  of  recording  litters  the  dams  of 
which  are  not  to  be  transferred  from  their  original  posi- 
tion. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 
WEANING  THE  PIGS, 

Several  methods  of  weaning  pigs  are  practiced  as  fol- 
lows :  First  the  pigs  are  allowed  to  run  with  the  sow  un- 
til they  either  wean  themselves  or  the  sow  by  refusing  to 
allow  them  to  suckle  any  longer  weans  them  herself. 
Second,  at  weaning  time  the  majority  of  the  pigs  are 
taken  away  from  the  dam  and  put  into  a  place  by  them- 
selves where  they  are  fed,  while  a  few  of  the  smaller  ones 
are  left  with  the  dam  gradually  to  drain  the  udder,  thus 
allowing  the  sow  to  dry  up  without  any  difficulty.  Third, 
the  pigs  are  all  taken  away  at  the  same  time,  or  rather 
the  pigs  are  left  in  their  pen  and  the  sow  is  taken  away. 

SELF  WEANING. 

According  to  the  first  practice  two  litters  per  year  can- 
not be  produced,  as  the  pigs  will  not  be  weaned  suffi- 
ciently early  to  allow  a  second  litter  to  be  produced  be- 
fore the  close  of  the  year.  This  method,  as  well  as  any 
other,  has  its  advantages  and  disadvantages.  The  ad- 
vantages are  that  the  pig  is  not  weaned  so  early  and  his 
demands  for  milk,  which  is  the  natural  food  for  young 
animals  and  is  always  the  best,  are  satisfied  for  a  longer 
period  than  when  the  pigs  are  weaned  earlier.  The  dis- 
advantages are  that  the  pig  may  depend  too  much  upon 
this  source  of  food  supply,  and  therefore  may  not  eat 
enough  outside  to  develop  as  well  as  he  should.  Then, 
too,  as  the  pigs  get  older,  the  larger  ones  of  the  litter  may 

(236) 


WEANING  THE  PIGS  237 

crowd  out  the  smaller  ones  which  will  allow  the  larger 
ones  to  develop  as  they  should,  but  the  smaller  ones  will 
become  runty  or  stunted  and  unable  to  make  satisfactory 
gains  thereafter. 

REMOVING  A  PART  OF  THE  LITTER. 

In  regard  to  the  second  practice,  the  arguments  as  seen 
by  the  writer  are  unfavorable.  If  part  of  the  pigs  are 
weaned  or  taken  away  from  their  dam  and  fed  properly, 
they  will  get  along  and  develop  all  right,  but  the  little 
ones  that  are  left  with  the  dam  for  the  assumed  purpose 
of  drying  up  the  sow  gradually  will  not  develop  as  they 
should.  As  previously  stated,  the  pigs  as  soon  as  far- 
rowed take  their  places  at  the  udder  of  the  dam.  These 
places  they  will  hold  through  the  lactation  period  except 
when  they  are  crowded  away  by  larger  pigs  of  the  litter 
or  by  pigs  of  another  litter.  Usually  the  pig  has  only  one, 
but  sometimes  two  teats  of  the  udder.  When  the  smaller 
pigs  are  left  with  the  sow  after  the  larger  ones  are  taken 
away  they  will  naturally  keep  their  own  places  at  the 
udder.  If  the  dam  is  to  furnish  milk  for  these  pigs  she 
must  necessarily  be  fed,  and  while  she  is  supplying  milk 
from  the  parts  of  the  udder  occupied  by  these  pigs,  she 
will  also  have  it  in  the  rest  of  the  udder.  Because  the 
pigs  have  been  accustomed  to  their  respective  places,  they 
will  drain  only  this  part  of  the  udder  which  will  result 
in  an  oversupply  of  milk  in  the  greater  part  of  the  udder 
and  may  produce  either  a  caked  udder  or  milk  fever,  and 
result  disastrously  for  the  pigs  that  are  left  as  well  as  for 
the  dam  herself.  If  the  little  pigs  that  are  left  with  the 
dam  in  such  a  case  make  an  attempt  to  perform  their  duty 
as  intended  and  try  to  drain  the  udder,  they  will  likely 
get  such  a  great  quantity  of  milk  and  get  it  in  such  a  con- 


238  SWINE 

dition  that  it  may  upset  their  digestive  apparatus  to  the 
extent  that  they  may  die. 

REMOVING  ALL  THE  LITTER. 

The  third  method  cited  for  weaning  pigs  is  considered 
the  best.  By  this  means  all  of  the  pigs  of  a  litter,  as  well 
as  all  of  the  litters  of  the  particular  time  of  the  year,  are 
taken  from  their  dams  at  the  same  time.  They  can  all  be 
put  on  feed  at  the  same  time,  they  will  be  of  the  same 
age,  and  can  be  fed  to  better  advantage  in  lots,  and  will 
develop  so  as  to  produce  an  evener  bunch  of  hogs  which 
will  sell  to  better  advantage.  The  sows  also  being 
weaned  at  the  same  time  will  come  in  heat  during  a  com- 
paratively short  period  and,  having  sufficient  boars  avail- 
able, they  may  be  bred  again  to  farrow  the  next  series  of 
litters  within  a  comparatively  short  time,  so  that  this 
process  can  be  continued  indefinitely.  Furthermore,  it  is 
thought  that  a  sow  will  breed  more  readily  immediately 
after  weaning  the  litter  than  she  will  at  any  other  time. 

This  system  of  weaning  pigs  is  put  into  practice  as  fol- 
lows :  At  weaning  time  all  the  sows,  together  with  their 
litters,  are  brought  to  their  respective  places  and  not 
given  any  feed  on  the  morning  of  the  day  that  the  pigs 
are  to  be  weaned.  The  pigs  are  allowed  to  drain  the 
udders  thoroughly  and  the  sows  are  then  taken  away  to  a 
dry  lot  or  pasture  without  much  grass.  They  are  given 
free  access  to  water,  but  no  feed  during  the  first  day  and 
only  a  little  feed  on  the  second  day.  By  this  means  the 
sows'  are  made  to  dry  up,  and  then  they  are  put  on  full 
feed  to  get  them  in  the  best  condition  for  breeding.  The 
pigs  are  kept  in  their  respective  places  or  divided  up1  into 
Jots  and  taken  to  their  regular  feeding  pens  where  they 
are  immediately  put  on  feed  as  outlined  in  Chapter  13. 


WEANING   THE   PIGS 


239 


240  SWINE 

The  sow  shown  in  the  cut  (27)  farrowed  and  raised 
eleven  good  pigs  at  her  first  litter,  and  during  four  years' 
work  was  not  injured  by  having  her  pigs  weaned  by  the 
method  here  described.  The  largest  number  she  ever 
farrowed  was  twenty  large  and  well  developed  pigs. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 
SHELTER  FOR  SWINE. 

The  hog  in  his  native  state  is  surrounded  by  natural 
conditions.  He  inhabits  the  forests  where  there  is  an 
abundance  of  shade  to  temper  the  heat  of  summer;  and 
where  there  are  thickets  which  afford  him  shelter  from 
the  cold  of  winter  and  especially  from  the  cold  winds; 
where  there  is  an  abundance  of  water  to  drink  and  to 
wallow  in;  where  the  soil  may  be  selected  to  contain  suf- 
ficient mineral  matter  for  the  development  of  the  bone 
tissue  of  his  carcass,  and  where  the  feed  in  the  form  of 
vegetation  is  such  as  may  be  selected  to  suit  the  fancy  of 
the  animal.  The  wild  boar,  however,  is  not  an  economi- 
cal producer  of  pork.  The  domestic  hog  has  been  very 
greatly  improved  in  this  regard  by  selection,  feeding  and 
shelter.  In  order  to  bring  about  the  greatest  possible  de- 
velopment of  the  modern  improved  hog,  he  must  have 
proper  shelter.  Such  shelter,  however,  must  be  as  nearly 
as  possible  in  harmony  with  the  conditions  of  nature  and 
at  the  same  time  supply  the  conditions  that  are  conducive 
to  the  greatest  growth  and  most  economical  production 
of  pork. 

In  order  to  be  best  suited  to  the  use  for  which  it  is 
intended,  a  hog  house  should  furnish  certain  fundamental 
conditions  as  follows :  It  should  be  serviceable,  sanitary, 
and  supply  the  conditions  that  are  necessary  for  maxi- 
mum development.  The  soil  upon  which  the  house  stands 
should  be  well  drained  to  furnish  dryness;  the  building 
should  be  well  lighted  and  be  built  so  that  the  direct 

(241) 


242  SWINE 

rays  of  the  sun  fall  upon  the  floor  of  the  pens  occupied  by 
the  pigs;  it  should  be  constructed  to  be  shady  and  cool 
during  the  heat  of  summer;  it  should  protect  the  pigs 
from  cold  winds  and  drafts  during  the  winter,  and  at  the 
same  time  afford  a  moderate  degree  of  warmth;  and  it 
should  be  located  so  that  the  pigs  may  have  access  to 
pasture  which  not  only  supplies  considerable  food  and 
also  mineral  substances  for  the  development  of  bone,  but 
also  gives  an  opportunity  for  exercise  which  exerts  a 
profound  influence  upon  the  metabolism  of  the  animal. 

Any  kind  of  a  house  that  will  supply  these  fundamental 
conditions  and  at  the  same  time  satisfy  the  convenience 
of  the  feeder  or  breeder  is  best  adapted  to  his  needs. 
Hog  houses  in  general  are  of  two  types :  large  houses  or 
those  accommodating  a  considerable  number  of  hogs,  and 
individual  houses  or  cots  which,  as  in  the  case  of  the  in- 
dividual pens  of  large  houses,  accommodate  one  sow  and 
her  litter. 

THE  LARGE  HOG  HOUSE. 

The  building  shown  in  the  cut  (28)  is  presented  as  an 
example  of  a  hog  house  of  this  type.  This  building  was 
designed  by  the  writer  and  first  built  by  the  Illinois  Ex- 
periment Station  upon  its  farm,  where  it  is  now  in  use. 
Since  that  time  it  has  been  copied  by  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  farmers,  breeders  and  experiment  stations  through- 
out the  country.  This  house  was  constructed  to  afford  as 
nearly  as  possible  all  the  conditions  that  are  considered 
necessary  in  a  building  of  this  nature. 

Serviceableness. — This  house  is  constructed  with  pens 
arranged  on  each  side  of  a  wide  alley,  which  will  permit 
the  passage  of  a  wagon,  and  adjoining  the  feed  room, 
scale,  etc.,  so  that  the  attendant  can  care  for  the  largest 


SHELTER   FOR   SWINE 


243 


244  SWINE 

number  of  hogs  and  do  the  greatest  amount  of  work  with 
the  smallest  amount  of  labor.  It  is  built  so  that  it  can 
be  used  for  farrowing  purposes  during  the  winter  season 
as  well  as  during  the  summer,  and  when  not  in  use  for 
this  purpose  it  may  be  used  as  a  place  for  feeding  hogs. 
Thus  the  building  can  be  put  to  use  the  entire  year. 

Sanitation. — In  order  to  provide  perfect  drainage,  un- 
less the  soil  is  naturally  well  drained,  a  tile  drain  should 
be  laid  away  from  the  hog  house  about  every  twenty  feet, 
or  from  a  point  between  each  two  pens.  This  drain 
should  run  away  from  the  building  at  right  angles,  drain- 
ing the  pens  to  the  outside,  also  affording  a  means 
of  disposing  of  the  flush  water  that  may  be  used  on  the 
inside.  After  reaching  the  outside  of  the  pens,  which  are 
next  to  the  house,  the  tile  may  be  run  in  any  direction 
that  is  most  convenient.  Any  other  system  of  laying  the 
tile  that  will  afford  as  good  drainage  will  be  just  as  satis- 
factory. The  opening  of  the  drain  should  be  placed  be- 
tween the  two  pens  at  the  point  where  the  doors  lead  to 
the  outside.  If  the  pens  are  sloped  a  little  to  this  point 
and  the  opening  to  the  drain  covered  with  a  perforated 
iron  plate,  the  pens  may  be  flushed  with  water  at  any 
time  and  the  excess  will  easily  run  off.  This  is  espe- 
cially advantageous  during  the  hot  weather  of  summer, 
for  cooling  the  house  and  for  the  purpose  of  scrubbing 
the  pens. 

In  order  to  have  the  building  free  from  drafts  during 
winter  it  should  be  tightly  enclosed  at  all  points,  espe- 
cially near  the  floor  of  the  pens  where  the  pigs  lie  in  their 
nests.  This  means  that  the  doors  leading  from  the  pens 
on  the  inside  of  the  hog  house  to  the  exterior  should  be 
well  fitted.  For  purposes  of  warmth  such  a  building 
should  be  constructed  in  accordance  with  the  latitude  in 


SHELTER  FOR  SWINE  245 

which  it  is  built.  Ordinarily  for  latitudes  north  of  cen- 
tral Illinois  such  a  building  should  have  more  than  one 
thickness  of  boards  for  the  wall.  It  is  suggested,  in  or- 
der not  to  provide  places  for  rats  and  mice,  that  the  build- 
ing be  first  sheeted  on  the  outside  of  the  studding,  over 
which  the  siding  is  nailed  with  paper  between.  If  then 
the  roof  is  made  equally  warm,  it  will  be  comfortable  in 
seasons  that  are  not  exceedingly  cold  on  account  of  be- 
ing far  north,  without  any  artificial  heat.  Ventilation  is 
provided  by  opening  the  upper  part  of  the  windows  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  building. 

Sunlight  is  one  of  the  most  important  considerations, 
both  for  warmth  and  sanitation.  The  building  repre- 
sented in  the  illustration  stands  east  and  west  with  the 
windows  on  the  south  side.  If  sufficient  windows  are  pro- 
vided, when  the  sun  is  shining,  the  building  will  be  com- 
fortably warm  during  the  winter  season.  Besides  fur- 
nishing warmth,  sunlight  is  a  very  strong  disinfectant. 
The  direct  rays  of  the  sun  will  destroy  all  disease  germs 
very  quickly,  and  a  sufficient  amount  of  light,  even 
though  the  rays  are  not  direct,  will  destroy  practically  all 
disease  germs,  but  not  quite  so  readily.  By  having  a 
building  of  proper  width  and  windows  of  proper  height 
in  accordance  with  the  width,  the  greatest  benefit  can  be 
obtained  from  the  sun  both  in  warmth  and  in  the  destruc- 
tion of  disease  germs  as  well  as  to  furnish  dryness  to 
some  extent. 

The  house  shown  in  Cut  28  is  30  feet  wide  with  an 
8-foot  alley  running  lengthwise  through  the  middle,  the 
pens  being  on  each  side  of  this.  The  upper  part  of  the 
windows  in  the  lower  part  of  the  building  which  is  on  the 
south  side  of  the  alley  are  5  feet  6  inches  from  the  floor. 
The  lower  part  of  the  windows  in  the  upper  part  are  8 


246  SWINE 

feet  above  the  floor.  With  this  arrangement  the  direct 
sunlight  falls  in  the  pens  occupied  by  the  pigs  during  the 
farrowing  seasons  in  late  fall  and  early  spring.  With  the 
windows  made  as  long  and  set  as  low  as  shown  above, 
the  maximum  amount  of  sunshine  is  obtained  at  these 
times.  Thus,  when  the  weather  is  quite  cold,  pigs  can 
be  farrowed  in  such  a  house  under  conditions  that  are 
warm,  sanitary  and  convenient.  If  a  building  is  con- 
structed on  this  plan,  it  will  answer  the  purpose  for  most 
all  latitudes,  because  farther  south  pigs  are  farrowed 
earlier  and  farther  north  later.  If,  however,  the  building 
is  to  be  made  narrower,  the  upper  windows  should  be 
lowered  a  little  to  get  the  maximum  amount  of  sunlight 
on  the  floor,  of  the  pens  at  the  proper  time. 

With  the  windows  arranged  as  suggested,  there  is  no 
direct  sunlight  in  the  pens  during  the  summer.  This 
together  with  the  arrangement  of  wire  partitions,  as 
shown  in  the  cut  on  page  251,  and  the  doors  and  win- 
dows, make  the  building  cool  and  comfortable  for 
summer  use.  At  such  times  the  doors  at  the  ends  of  the 
building,  the  doors  leading  from  the  pens  to  the  outside, 
and  the  upper  part  of  the  upper  windows  are  opened, 
allowing  the  hot  air  to  pass  out  while  the  cool  air  coming 
in  near  the  ground  can  circulate  freely  over  the  entire 
bottom  of  the  building.  It  is  not  obstructed  because  the 
partitions  are  all  of  wire,  as  will  be  outlined  later. 

Farmer's  Bulletin  438,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, issued  April  15,  1911,  gives  sunshine  tables  for  the 
purpose  of  locating  windows  in  houses  of  this  kind. 
These  are  helpful,  but  in  the  cut  used  to  illustrate  this, 
the  upper  windows  seem  to  the  writer  to  be  too  short 
for  maximum  usefulness  and  too  high  for  late  fall  far- 
rowing. The  maximum  sunshine  Tor  uic  effort  windows 
is  had  only  from  10  a.  m.  to  2  p.  m. 


SHELTER  FOR   SWINE  247 

PLAN  OF  THE  HOUSE. 

Cut  29  shows  the  ground  plan  of  the  hog  house  al- 
ready described  slightly  modified.  The  building  is  ap- 
proached by  means  of  an  alley  at  the  near  end.  The  hog 
house  is  represented  by  the  figure  O  S  T  U.  X  Y  is  the 
alley  running  lengthwise  through  the  middle  of  the  build- 
ing; R  represents  the  doors  at  each  end  of  the  building 
and  one  between  the  part  of  the  building  containing  the 
pens  which  are  occupied  by  the  pigs  and  the  rest  of  the 
building.  The  front  end  of  the  building  is  given  up  to  the 
office,  feed  rooms,  scale,  etc.  G  represents  the  office,  C 
the  bins  for  the  storage  of  feed,  F  the  feed  mixing  room, 
I  the  small  bins  from  which  the  feed  is  weighed  out  di- 
rectly to  the  pigs.  E  represents  the  water  heater  where 
the  water  is  heated  for  mixing  the  slop  during  the  winter 
season ;  H  shows  the  hydrant  from  which  the  water  is  ob- 
tained. This  is  connected  with  the  water  system  of  the 
farm.  D  represents  the  platform  scale  which  is  used  for 
weighing  the  pigs  and  this  is  provided  with  a  door  Q. 
which  may  be  opened  as  shown  in  the  cut,  so  that  the  pigs 
coming  down  the  alley  will  naturally  go  onto  the  scales. 
The  scale  also  is  provided  with  a  small  door  at  the  other 
end  leading  through  the  door  P  in  the  building  to  the 
lot  on  the  outside.  A  door  at  J  leads  from  the  feed  room 
into  this  lot  through  which  feed  may  be  carried  as  it  is 
taken  to  the  pens  adjoining  the  hog  house  on  the  outside 
or  to  nearby  pastures. 

B  is  an  alley  leading  from  the  house  to  a  small  yard  at 
the  north  side  of  the  building.  The  pens  in  the  house  are 
represented  by  the  figure  A.  These  are  ten  feet  wide  and 
eleven  feet  deep.  These  dimensions  are  not  absolutely 
necessary,  but  are  arranged,  as  already  stated,  for  the 
greatest  convenience.  If  the  house  is  narrower  or  wider, 


SWINE 


CUT  29.— PLAN  OF  HOG  HOUSE  AT  THE  ILLINOIS  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


SHELTER   FOR  SWINE  249 

or  the  width  of  the  alley  of  a  different  dimension,  the 
depth  of  the  pens  may  be  changed  accordingly.  The 
width  of  the  pens  is  taken  arbitrarily  at  ten  feet  because 
this  is  a  convenient  size  and  affords  room  for  the  feed 
trough  and  a  sleeping  place  at  one  side  of  the  pen,  and 
the  doors  leading  to  the  alley  on  the  inside  and  to  the 
pens  on  the  outside  of  the  house  on  the  other  side.  The 
doors  leading  to  the  inside  are  represented  by  N  and 
those  leading  to  the  outside  by  M.  L  shows  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  feed  troughs.  These,  as  will  be  seen,  are 
placed  at  the  side  of  the  pen  along  the  alley.  Imme- 
diately above  the  trough  is  a  swinging  panel  as  shown  in 
the  cut,  page  251.  This  panel  may  be  swung  in  at  the 
bottom  and  fastened  with  a  latch  that  is  seen  across  the 
center  of  the  panel,  thus  shutting  the  pigs  away  from  the 
trough  while  the  feed  is  being  put  into  it.  After  the  feed 
is  in,  this  panel  is  swung  back  and  the  pigs  given  access 
to  the  slop. 

K  in  cut  30,  page  248,  represents  the  fender.  This  is  a 
two-inch  tubular  iron  bar  set  on  posts  of  the  same  dimen^ 
sions  in  concrete  in  the  floor.  The  purpose  of  the  fender 
is  to  prevent  the  sows  from  overlying  their  pigs  or  crush- 
ing them  to  death  against  the  walls.  This  bar  is  placed 
about  ten  inches  above  the  floor  and  six  inches  from  the 
wall.  It  is  not  necessary  to  have  this  extend  all  the  way 
around  the  pen  because  the  sow  will  necessarily  make 
her  nest  in  this  corner.  The  front  part  of  the  pen  is  occu- 
pied by  the  trough  and  the  side  of  the  pen,  apart  from  the 
place  where  the  fender  is,  is  taken  up  by  the  doors,  one 
leading  to  the  alley  and  the  other  to  the  outside.  A 
shows  the  pens  on  the  outside  of  the  house,  which  are  of 
the  same  width  as  the  pens  on  the  inside  and  are  of  con- 
venient length.  These  give  the  pigs  an  opportunity  to 


250  SWINE 

get  out  of  doors  for  more  exercise  and  more  sunlight. 
They  also  open  into  the  lane  which  leads  to  the  pas- 
tures. 

INTERIOR  VIEW. 

Cut  30  shows  the  interior  of  the  hog  house  here  de- 
scribed. As  will  be  seen  all  the  inside  gates,  partitions 
and  fences  are  made  of  wire  woven  on  tubular  iron  frames 
in  the  form  of  panels.  The  panel  immediately  above  the 
trough  which  is  swung  back  for  the  purpose  of  putting 
the  feed  into  the  trough,  is  hung  at  the  top.  The  upper 
bar  projects  at  either  end  of  the  panel,  one  end  of  which 
rests  in  the  iron  post,  as  shown,  which  stands  between 
the  gate  leading  into  the  pen  and  the  trough;  the  other 
end  rests  in  a  notch  of  the  post  supporting  the  roof  of  the 
building.  The  gates  leading  into  the  pens  are  hung  and 
latched  so  they  can  be  easily  opened  by  the  attendant. 
The  wire  panels  between  the  pens  are  made  just  long 
enough  to  reach  from  the  post  to  the  edge  of  a  studding 
and  are  held  in  place  by  narrow  cleats  nailed  on  the  side 
of  either  end.  These  panels  can  be  taken  out  if  desirable 
so  that  the  entire  side  of  the  hog  house  can  be  thrown  to- 
gether. This,  however,  is  not  often  necessary  in  the  or- 
dinary use  of  the  building.  Sometimes  it  is  found  con- 
venient to  throw  two  or  three  pens  together  into  one 
when  a  large  bunch  of  sows  or  pigs  is  fed  in  one  drove. 

The  advantages  of  wire  fences  and  partitions  over 
wooden  ones  are  as  follows :  The  light  coming  through 
the  windows  at  midday  when  the  sun  shines  in  directly 
or  during  both  the  forenoon  and  afternoon  when  the  sun 
is  not  shining  directly  into  the  building,  is  not  obstructed 
and  can  fall  directly  upon  the  floor  of  the  pens.  Even 
early  in  the  morning  or  late  in  the  evening,  when  the  sun 
shines  through  the  windows  at  the  ends  of  the  building, 


SHELTER  FOR   SWINE 


251 


252  SWINE 

the  light  can  pass  through  the  wire  partitions,  and  still 
strike  the  floor  of  some  of  the  pens. 

Wire  partitions  also  afford  better  sanitation ;  there  are 
no  cracks  or  crevasses  for  disease  germs  to  lodge  in  and 
no  dirty  places  in  which  they  can  grow  and  develop. 
Thus  the  building  is  both  warm  and  sanitary.  Further- 
more, as  already  stated,  the  wire  partitions  allow  free  and 
perfect  circulation  of  air  over  the  entire  floor,  where  cir- 
culation is  necessary.  Pigs  during  hot  weather  cannot  be 
kept  too  cool  and  the  circulation  of  the  cool  air  should 
be  on  the  floor  where  they  live. 

Another  and  one  of  the  most  important  points  in  favor 
of  wire  partitions  is  that  the  pigs  are  always  visible  to 
the  attendant,  who  can  see  when  anything  goes  wrong 
in  any  of  the  pens  and  render  immediate  assistance.  The 
pigs  occupying  different  pens  are  also  in  view  of  each 
other  as  well  as  in  view  of  the  attendant.  Thus  when  any 
of  the  sows  are  taken  in  from  the  pasture  and  put  into 
their  respective  pens  during  the  farrowing  season,  they 
do  not  become  estranged  to  so  great  an  extent  and  there- 
fore are  not  as  likely  to  fight  and  injure  each  other  when 
put  back  into  the  pasture  after  farrowing.  The  sow  also 
can  see  what  is  going  on  in  the  house.  If  a  sow  in  an  ad- 
jacent pen  steps  on  one  of  her  pigs,  causing  it  to  squeal, 
the  sows  in  the  other  pens  do  not  necessarily  become 
frightened  and  jump  up  and  perhaps  injure  their  litters. 
Also  at  feeding  time  the  various  sows  caa  see  where  the 
feeder  is  at  work  and  will  not  be  so  restless  and  uneasy, 
climbing  up  to  the  top  of  the  pen  with  their  front  feet  in 
anticipation  of  feed,  thus  injuring  their  pigs. 

The  wire  gates,  panels,  iron  posts  and  fenders  used  in 
this  hog  house  were  not  ordinary  stock  goods  at  the  time 
this  house  was  built,  but  were  made  to  order  in  Michigan. 


SHELTER  FOR  SWINE  253 

The  Floors. — A  hog  house  should  be  supplied  with 
floors  that  are  well  adapted  to  the  pig  as  well  as  being 
the  most  economical  and  durable.  The  floor  of  nature  is 
the  bare  earth.  From  the  standpoint  of  the  hog,  there 
probably  is  no  better  floor  than  a  dirt  floor  when  it  is 
kept  in  proper  condition.  It  must,  however,  be  kept 
smooth  and  dry,  but  not  dusty.  Since  the  natural  earth 
as  a  floor  is  difficult  to  keep  in  proper  condition,  artificial 
floors  are  usually  made.  Wood  floors  laid  firmly  upon 
the  soil  are  very  good  from  the  standpoint  of  conditoins 
for  the  pig,  but  they  are  not  durable.  They  rot  out  very 
soon  and  must  be  replaced  which,  on  account  of  the  pres- 
ent high  price  of  lumber,  makes  them  undesirable.  A 
floor  that  is  raised  from  the  ground  is  unsatisfactory  be- 
cause with  the  space  underneath  it  is  likely  to  be  cold, 
and  if  not  perfectly  water-tight  the  liquid  manure  will 
seep  through,  making  such  a  place  unsanitary. 

In  the  hog  house  described  part' of  the  floor  is  made  of 
brick  and  part  of  concrete.  Where  brick  was  used  in 
this  particular  case  it  was  a  little  cheaper,  and  is  a  little 
better  because  it  is  not  quite  so  slippery ;  it  is  also  proba- 
bly a  little  warmer  than  concrete.  Where  brick  was  used 
it  is  laid  on  edge  in  the  alley  and  on  side  in  the  pens,  on 
a  foundation  of  either  gravel  or  cinders  bedded  over  with 
sand,  and  then  the  cracks  between  the  bricks  are  flushed 
with  cement.  This  makes  a  solid  floor  which  will  not 
allow  the  liquid  manure  to  pass  through,  can  easily  be 
cleaned,  and  will  never  rot  out.  The  cement  floor  is  laid 
in  the  usual  way.  Floors  like  these  are  sanitary  and  will 
furnish  a  cool  place  for  the  hogs  to  lie  during  the  sum- 
mer, but  during  the  winter  season  they  are  too  cold. 

The  concrete  or  brick  being  laid  on  the  ground  will 
contain  some  moisture  and  is  a  good  conductor  of  heat, 


254  SWINE 

therefore  the  animals  lying  on  it  will  become  unduly  cold. 
Pigs  kept  on  such  floors  are  likely  to  be  troubled  with 
rheumatism  and  may  have  other  diseases  brought  on  from 
becoming  chilled.  To  remedy  this  difficulty,  wood  floors 
called  overlays  are  made  for  the  corner  of  the  pen  occu- 
pied by  the  fender  where  the  sow  makes  her  nest.  These 
are  made  by  simply  nailing  together  boards  one  inch 
thick  with  three  or  four  narrow  strips  across  the  bottom. 
These  overlays  are  put  in  the  corner  where  the  fender  is 
and  where  the  nest  is  to  be  with  the  strips  underneath, 
which  keeps  the  pigs  off  the  brick  or  concrete,  making  the 
nest  very  warm  and  dry  during  the  cold  weather  of  win- 
ter. In  the  house  described  these  overlays  more  than 
paid  for  themselves  during  the  first  year  in  the  amount  of 
bedding  saved,  the  pigs  requiring  a  great  deal  more  bed- 
ding when  kept  on  the  concrete  or  brick  floors  without 
the  overlays.  The  amount  of  good  to  be  derived  from 
these  overlays  is  very  great  in  the  improvement  of  the 
health  of  the  breeding  stock  as  well  as  in  the  number  of 
pigs  that  may  be  saved.  During  the  summer  season, 
when  these  overlays  are  not  needed,  they  should  be  taken 
up  and  put  away  to  prevent  them  from  rotting  and  also 
to  make  the  house  neater  in  appearance  and  cleaner  and 
more  sanitary. 

Cost  of  Hog  House. — A  house  of  this  kind,  or  any  other 
kind,  may  be  built  economically  or  expensively,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  wishes  of  the  builder.  It  is  true  that 
wire  partitions  are  a  little  more  expensive  than  wooden 
ones,  but  the  advantages  to  be  gained  by  them  are  con- 
sidered more  valuable  than  the  extra  cost.  Beside  this, 
with  the  increase  in  the  cost  of  lumber,  it  may  be  possible 
that  the  wire  partitions  will  become  relatively  cheaper. 
In  the  building  in  question  the  iron  material,  includ- 


SHELTER  FOR   SWINE  255 

ing  the  fender,  posts,  gates  and  fences,  cost  $13.60  per 
pen.  This  price  of  course  will  vary  with  conditions. 
Outside  of  this,  a  hog  house  of  this  character  can  be  built 
at  a  total  cost  that  is  similar  to  the  cost  of  other  build- 
ings of  the  same  size  and  construction.  In  order  to  save 
expense  in  a  building  of  this  kind  it  may  be  made  a  little 
narrower,  a  little  lower,  and  the  pens  may  be  a  little 
smaller.  The  floors  may  be  left  out,  and  the  part  of  the 
building  containing  the  office,  feed  bins,  scale,  etc.,  may 
also  be  left  off,  all  of  which  would  help  to  reduce  the  cost 
to  a  minimum. 

Location  as  to  Pasture. — In  order  to  be  useful  to  the 
greatest  degree  a  hog  house  should  be  so  situated  that  it 
will  furnish  the  hogs  with  an  abundance  of  exercise.  This 
may  be  done  during  the  summer  season  by  having  the 
house  placed  to  give  the  pigs  access  to  pasture.  The 
pasture  will  not  only  supply  exercise,  but  will  also  fur- 
nish a  great  deal  of  the  feed,  together  with  considerable 
mineral  matter.  During  the  winter  season  when  pastures 
are  not  available,  a  hog  house  of  this  kind  can  still  be 
located  to  supply  the  pigs  with  exercise.  It  might  be 
placed  at  a  suitable  distance  from  the  regular  barn  yard 
where  the  horses  and  cattle  are  kept.  During  the  day  the 
pigs  may  be  turned  into  the  barn  yard  to  pick  over  the 
manure  and  thus  get  the  required  amount  of  exercise. 
The  arrangement  of  the  house  and  pastures  as  in  use  at 
the  Illinois  Experiment  Station  is  shown  in  Cut  31. 

HOG  HOUSE  AND  PASTURES. 

In  the  cut  (31)  B  is  the  hog  house,  A'  pens  on  the 
outside,  L  a  small  pasture  and  E  and  F  are  the  lanes 
leading  to  the  pastures.  In  this  particular  instance  there 
is  very  little  land  available  for  pasture,  while  a  great 


SWINE 


many  pigs  are  being  bred  and  grown  for  experimental 
purposes,  but  the  arrangement  is  still  such  as  to  provide 
an  abundance  of  exercise.  The  larger  lots,  H  and  J, 
afford  pasture  to  the  breeding  herd  in  general  for  the  two 
sides  of  the  house  respectively,  while  the  narrow  lots,  X, 
shown  at  the  left,  are  used  for  the  experimental  feeding  of 


CUT   31.— HOG    HOUSE    WITH   A    PLAN   FOR    PASTURES. 

pigs.  In  these  the  sleeping  cots  for  the  pigs  are  placed  at 
the  farther  end  and  the  pigs  are  fed  at  the  front  end  near 
the  hog  house.  Thus  by  traveling  back  and  forth  from 
the  cot  to  the  feed  trough,  considerable  exercise  is  taken 
and  the  pig  may  be  compelled  to  take  the  desired  amount 
of  exercise  by  simply  regulating  the  number  of  feeds  per 


SHELTER  FOR  SWINE  257 

day.  These  are  built  in  the  form  of  a  right  angle  to  have 
them  compact  and  not  take  too  much  room  and  still  have 
sufficient  length.  They  are  of  the  same  length  to  have  the 
conditions  the  same  in  all  for  experimental  purposes.  W 
represents  smaller  lots  used  for  mature  herd  boars.  This 
arrangement  is  not  absolute  but  may  be  modified  to  suit 
circumstances  and  convenience. 

Use  of  the  Hog  House. — The  use  to  which  such  a  house 
may  be  put  is  general.  Its  primary  use  is  for  farrowing 
purposes.  The  pens  are  so  arranged  that  this  part  of  the 
swine  industry  may  be  carried  on  to  the  best  advantage. 
Between  the  farrowing  seasons,  this  house  may  be  used 
for  feeding  purposes  provided  it  is  not  used  at  all  times 
for  farrowing  purposes.  A  house  of  this  character  then 
will  answer  the  purpose  for  producing  pure  bred  hogs  for 
breeding  purposes,  as  well  as  for  producing  market  hogs. 
If  the  breeding  herd  is  large,  or  if  the  hog  house  is  small, 
the  herd  may  be  divided  so  that  the  pigs  are  not  all  far- 
rowed at  the  same  time.  As  previously  outlined,  it  is 
desirable  to  have  all  the  pigs  of  a  given  season  farrowed 
as  nearly  as  possible  at  the  same  time.  The  reason  for 
this  is  that  the  pigs  may  be  fed  to  the  best  advantage  be- 
cause as  they  get  older  and  heavier  they  require  varying 
quantities  of  nutrients.  Also  if  the  pigs  are  farrowed  at 
the  same  time,  they  will  be  more  nearly  the  same  size  and 
will  sell  to  better  advantage.  Thus  if  the  building  is  not 
large  enough  to  accommodate  all  the  sows  at  one  time, 
the  breeding  herd  may  be  divided.  The  spring  crop  may 
be  allowed  to  farrow,  as  for  instance,  in  February  and 
April,  and  the  fall  crop  in  August  and  October.  With 
such  an  arrangement  the  house  will  be  in  use  the  greater 
part  of  the  year  for  farrowing  purposes,  and  in  such  a 
case  the  feeding  will  necessarily  have  to  be  done  at  some 
other  place. 


258  SWINE 

The  advantages  of  a  large  hog  house,  then,  as  outlined, 
are  that  it  is  serviceable,  sanitary,  convenient,  and  affords 
safety  both  to  the  pigs  that  are  farrowed  as  well  as  to  the 
attendant.  It  also  supplies  the  conditions  for  handling 
the  pigs  with  the  greatest  ease,  and  for  doing  the  greatest 
amount  of  work  with  the  smallest  amount  of  labor.  With 
a  large  hog  house  also  large  pastures  can  be  used ;  hence 
after  the  farm  is  fenced  with  hog  fence  into  different 
fields,  these  may  be  used  in  rotation  for  hog  pastures, 
which  will  at  the  same  time  save  the  scattered  and  lodged 
grain  and  supply  the  pig  with  a  sufficient  amount  of  ex- 
ercise to  allow  him  to  develop  normally.  Moreover,  the 
acquaintance  maintained  among  the  individuals  of  the 
herd  is  of  considerable  advantage,  as  well  as  the  fact  that 
the  hogs  are,  when  in  the  house,  at  all  times  visible  to 
the  attendant. 

INDIVIDUAL  HOG  HOUSES. 

These  buildings  are  frequently  called  cots  and  received 
their  name  from  the  fact  that  they  usually  afford  shelter 
for  a  single  sow  with  her  litter  similar  to  a  single  pen 
of  a  large  house.  Such  houses  or  cots  are  usually  placed 
in  a  small  lot  where  the  sow  is  put  by  herself  to  farrow. 
The  pigs  after  weaning  time  are  still  kept  in  the  same  lot 
until  grown  to  maturity.  Such  a  practice  has  the  ad- 
vantage that  individual  sows  are  entirely  isolated  and 
away  from  all  disturbance.  The  pigs  have  a  lot  which 
may  be  either  large  or  small,  but  which  will  furnish  exer- 
cise and  provide  them  a  place  to  graze.  Furthermore, 
they  may  be  compelled  to  take  exercise  by  placing  the  cot 
at  the  farther  end  of  the  lot  and  the  feed  trough  in  front. 
Thus  by  going  back  and  forth  from  the  cot  to  the  trough 
they  will  be  compelled  to  take  exercise.  If  disease  should 


.       SHELTER  FOR  SWINE  259 

ever  break  out  in  the  herd,  it  would  not  be  as  likely  to 
destroy  as  many  individuals  when  they  are  isolated  in 
this  manner  as  it  would  if  they  were  kept  in  close  prox- 
imity in  the  large  house.  However,  if  the  large  house  is 
properly  constructed  and  used,  and  the  pigs  are  properly 
^ed,  there  is  no  danger  of  disease  ever  breaking  out  in 
the  herd.  If  disease  is  introduced  into  the  herd  from  ex- 
ternal sources,  of  course  the  small  hog  house,  on  account 
of  its  isolation,  has  an  advantage  over  the  large  one. 

A  small  house  may  be  moved  from  place  to  place,  thus 
providing  clean  quarters  if  the  original  location  becomes 
foul  and  the  manure  is  not  taken  away.  With  this  ar- 
rangement of  individual  houses,  or  cots,  the  hog  lot  will 
be  more  or  less  permanent  because  it  is  expensive  to  build 
new  lots.  In  order  to  furnish  sufficient  exercise  these 
lots  should  be  of  considerable  size,  usually  from  one-half 
to  one  acre.  A  larger  area  would  be  still  better.  This 
is  one  of  the  disadvantages  of  the  small  house,  or  cot, 
because  it  involves  considerable  expense  and  inconven- 
ience, as  a  separate  lot  is  necessary  for  each  sow. 

A-SHAPED  COTS;  FRONT  AND  REAR. 

The  form  in  which  these  small  houses  or  cots  are  built 
is  decidedly  varied,  as  nearly  every  breeder  or  every 
locality  or  community  of  breeders  has  a  special  type. 
Cuts  32  and  33  illustrate  both  the  front  and  rear 
respectively  of  the  cots  in  use  at  the  Illinois  Experiment 
Station  farm.  As  can  readily  be  seen  this  consists  of  a 
base  or  sill  made  of  4x4's,  to  which  boards  8  feet  long  are 
nailed,  meeting  above  in  the  form  of  the  letter  A.  The 
gables  are  also  enclosed  with  a  door  in  front  and  a 
smaller  opening  near  the  top  of  the  rear  end.  A  cot  of 
this  form  is  very  good.  It  affords  room  for  a  bunch  of 
eight  or  ten  pigs  and  when  built  on  skids  can  be  easily 


260  SWINE 

drawn  from  place  to  place  by  a  horse.  In  the  cuts  given 
the  cots  are  raised  from  the  ground  for  summer  use. 
This  prevents  the  sills  from  rotting  and  is  cooler  for  the 


CUT    32.— FRONT    VIEW    OF    A-SHAPED    COT    FOR    SWINE 

pigs.    In  winter  they  are  set  on  the  ground  to  make  them 
warmer. 

LARGE  COT. 

The  cut  (34)  shows  a  small  house  of  another  type. 
This,  however,  is  a  little  larger  and  is  intended  for  sup- 
plying shelter  to  a  considerable  number  of  breeding  ani- 
mals in  a  pasture. 

Besides  these,  there  are  many  other  designs  and  sizes 
of  small  houses  or  cots.  Some  have  the  roof  sloping  only 
one  way,  others  have  a  gable  roof  which  is  short  on  one 


SHELTER   FOR   SWINE 


261 


side  and  long  on  the  other  side.  In  the  latter  the  short 
part  of  the  roof  is  usually  arranged  so  that  it  can  be  re- 
moved to  let  the  sun  shine  in  on  warm  days.  Many  times 
these  cots  are  built  square,  like  an  ordinary  house,  with 
windows  and  doors  at  the  sides.  The  size  of  these  cots 


CUT   33.— HEAR   VIEW    OF   A-SHAPED    COT   FOR    SWINE. 

should  be  such  that  they  will  shelter  the  desired  number 
of  pigs,  and  in  the  manner  of  construction  the  funda- 
mental principles  for  a  hog  house  should  be  observed, 
namely,  they  should  allow  the  sun  to  shine  on  the  floor 
of  the  interior;  they  should  afford  warmth  and  shelter 
from  cold  winds  in  the  winter;  they  should  have  suffi- 
cient fresh  air,  and  at  all  times  they  should  be  dry. 


262  SWINE 

The  individual  hog  house  system  as  compared  to  the 
large  house  is  further  handicapped  by  requiring  more 
labor  to  feed  and  care  for  the  herd,  and  the  cots  are  not 
as  well  adapted  for  purposes  of  farrowing  because  a  fen- 
der cannot  be  so  well  arranged,  it  is  not  so  sanitary,  and 
in  the  case  of  vicious  sows  not  so  safe  for  the  attendant. 
A  cot,  however,  costs  less  than  a  pen  in  the  large  hog 
house,  but  this  is  at  least  partly  overbalanced  by  the  fact 
that  each  cot  has  with  it,  when  used  for  farrowing  pur- 
poses, a  small  pasture. 

Perhaps  the  best  and  most  economical  arrangement  is 
a  combination  of  the  two,  using  the  large  house  for  far- 
rowing purposes  and  the  cots  or  small  houses  as  shelters 
for  the  shotes  and  fattening  hogs,  as  well  as  for  the  mem- 
bers of  the  breeding  herd  that  are  not  in  the  large  house 
caring  for  a  litter.  The  large  house,  when  built  as  here 
outlined,  and  when  not  in  use  for  farrowing  purposes, 
can  be  used  to  better  advantage  for  feeding  than  the  cot 
because  it  is  more  sanitary,  more  convenient,  and  also 
cooler  in  summer. 

A  PORTABLE  PANEL  FENCE. 

A  piece  of  fence  that  can  easily  be  moved  is  a  great 
convenience  on  a  hog  farm.  With  it  pens  can  quickly  be 
made  or  readjusted  to  suit  circumstances.  Many  times 
such  a  fence  is  not  in  use  because  its  advantages  are  not 
known,  or  because  it  is  thought  to  be  difficult  to  con- 
struct. To  simplify  the  construction  of  such  a  fence  the 
cut  (35)  and  following  directions  for  construction  are 
herewith  given.  This  was  originally  prepared  for  an  Illi- 
nois Experiment  Station  circular,  but  only  a  limited  num- 
ber of  this  circular  were  published.  There  are  other 
fences  of  this  nature  in  use,  but  this  has  proved  satisfac- 
tory at  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station  farm. 


SHELTER   FOR   SWINE 


263 


264 


SWINE 


Method  of  Construction. — Construct  a  table  four  feet 
wide  and  seventeen  feet  long.  ('With  a  little  more  care 
and  inconvenience  the  barn  floor  may  be  substituted  for 
the  table.)  At  one  end  of  the  table  and  at  right  angles 
with  the  same  nail  a  piece  of  straight  board,  C,  Figure  A 
in  the  illustration.  At  the  front  side  of  the  table,  or  the 
side  of  the  workman,  nail  two  blocks,  d,  made  of  two-inch 
lumber,  so  that  they  are  at  right  angles  to  c,  to  form  sup- 
ports for  the  lower  board  of  the  panel  and  the  lower  ends 


CUT  35.— PORTABLE  PANEL  FENCE  FOR  SWINE. 

cf  the  two  end  cross  bars.  Then  take  two-inch  blocks,  f, 
e,  g,  that  are  about  two  inches  wide,  and  nail  them  to  the 
table  so  that  their  outside  ends  are  11  inches  from  the 
proposed  ends  of  the  panel,  and  arrange  them  so  that  it 
is  nine  inches  from  the  upper  side  of  d  to  the  upper  side 
of  f,  eleven  inches  from  the  upper  side  of  f  to  the  upper 
side  of  e,  and  fourteen  inches  from  the  upper  side  of  e  to, 
the  upper  side  of  g.  Next  place  six-inch  boards  sixteen 
feet  long  (the  length  of  the  panel)  so  that  they  lie  firmly 


SHELTER  FOR  SWINE  265 

against  the  upper  side  of  the  blocks  d,  f,  e,  g,  and  butt 
against  c.  This  may  easily  be  accomplished  by  raising 
the  farther  side  of  the  table  a  little  so  that  the  boards  will 
keep  their  position  against  the  blocks.  The  table  should 
also  be  inclined  a  little  toward  c.  The  crossbars  which 
have  been  sawed  40  inches  long  are  now  nailed  one  across 
each  end  and  one  at  the  middle  as  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion. These  are  to  be  six  inches  wide  and  only  on  one 
side  of  the  panel  and  nailed  with  8d  wire  nails  which 
should  be  clinched.  The  two  end  crossbars  can  rest 
against  the  ends  of  the  blocks  f,  e  and  g,  with  their  sides 
and  against  d  with  their  ends.  Saw  out  one  inch  deep 
from  the  upper  edge  of  each  end  of  the  lower  board  out- 
side of  the  cross-bar.  This  will  make  a  fence  that  is  forty 
inches  high  when  the  lower  board  rests  on  the  ground. 
By  following  the  method  here  outlined  the  panels  will  all 
be  of  the  same  dimension  and  will  thus  fit  the  triangles 
without  difficuty. 

To  construct  the  triangle  represented  in  B  and  B'  and 
used  to  support  the  panel,  saw  three  pieces  of  board  six 
inches  wide  and  four  feet  long.  Nail  a  one-inch  board  at 
the  front  side  of  the  table  for  a  straight  edge  and  use  this 
as  the  base  line.  Take  a  point  1  on  the  base  line  and  21 
inches  each  side  of  this  point,  the  points  m  and  m'.  Take 
a  point  o  so  that  it  is  27l/2  inches  above  1,  and  at  right 
angles  to  the  base  line  at  1.  Now  take  two  of  the  boards 
four  feet  long  and  lay  the  lower  and  inside  corners  at  m 
and  m',  and  allow  the  inside  of  the  two  boards  to  cross 
at  the  point  o.  Nail  the  boards  lightly  in  this  position, 
and  lay  out  r  and  s  which  are  notches  sawed  out  for  the 
ends  of  the  boards  of  the  panel  to  fit  into.  These  notches 
are  2^2  inches  wide  and  the  upper  end  of  r  is  2ST/2  inches 
from  the  base  line.  The  lower  end  of  notch  s  is  7*/2 


266  SWINE 

inches  above  r.  Now  draw  out  the  nails,  saw  out  r  and  s, 
and  use  the  two  pieces  i  and  j  for  patterns.  For  h  take  a 
six-inch  board  four  feet  long  and  at  the  middle  of  each 
side  saw  out  a  notch  one  inch  deep  and  2y2  inches  wide. 

After  having  sawed  out  a  sufficient  number  of  pieces  ac- 
cording to  Figure  B,  then  proceed  to  put  them  together 
as  in  Figure  B'.  Saw  out  a  piece,  x,  \7y2  inches  long,  2 
inches  thick  and  2y2  inches  wide.  Nail  this  on  the  table 
so  that  its  median  line  is  perpendicular  to  the  base  line  at 
1,  and  so  that  the  upper  end  is  28>y2  inches  from  the  base 
line.  Now  prepare  two  blocks,  y  and  z,  of  one-inch  lum- 
ber and  nail  them  to  the  table  so  that  the  outside  lower 
points,  as  in  Figure  B',  are  each  21  inches  from  the  point 
1.  Place  i,  j  and  h  in  the  position  as  in  Figure  B'  so  that 
the  inside  notches  of  i  and  j  will  rest  firmly  against  the 
upper  end  of  x,  and  that  .the  notch  on  the  upper  side  of  h 
will  rest  firmly  against  the  lower  end  of  x  and  that  h  is 
parallel  to  the  base  line.  Nail  firmly  and  saw  the  corners 
of  h  so  that  it  is  flush  with  i  and  j.  The  upper  ends  of  y 
and  z  have  nothing  to  do  with  determining  the  lower  line 
of  h.  Use  8d  wire  nails  and  clinch. 

Both  the  triangles  and  panels  should  be  made  of  com- 
mon rough  fencing  and  the  number  of  triangles  should 
equal  the  number  of  panels  plus  one.  In  placing  the 
panels  and  triangles  to  make  a  fence,  reverse  every  alter- 
nate panel  so  that  the  crossbars  are  on  opposite  sides  and 
set  a  triangle  at  every  juncture  of  the  panels  and  at  the 
ends  of  the  fence. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 
TUBERCULOSIS. 

Tuberculosis  is  a  germ  disease  and  affects  swine  in  a 
similar  manner  in  which  the  human  family  is  affected  by 
consumption,  which  then  is  simply  another  term  for  the 
same  disease.  The  first  external  symptom  of  tuberculosis 
in  swine  is  that  the  hog  will  appear  less  thrifty  and  not 
make  as  rapid  gains.  As  the  disease  develops  the  hog  be- 
comes sick  in  appearance,  ceases  to  make  gains,  and  then 
rapidly  loses  flesh,  and  finally  dies.  Frequently  tuber- 
culosis is  accompanied  by  a  cough,  but  very  often  this  is 
not  true. 

This  disease  is  caused  by  a  germ  called  Bacillus  tuber- 
culosis. The  germ  is  so  small  that  it  can  float  in  the  air 
the  same  as  particles  of  dust,  and  consequently  may  be 
inhaled  at  any  time  in  places  that  are  affected  with  this 
disease.  Furthermore,  the  germs  are  so  small  that  when 
once  they  are  taken  into  the  system,  they  can  pass  out  of 
the  digestive  system  and  out  of  the  circulatory  system 
very  freely.  As  a  comparison  the  tubercle  bacillus  com- 
pares in  size  with  the  blood  cell  as  a  piece  of  a  lead  pencil 
compares  in  size  with  an  apple.  Thus  it  is  seen  that  the 
blood  vessels  which  contain  the  blood  cells  would  not 
necessarily  retain  the  tubercle  bacilli.  These  are  so  small 
that  they  could  readily  pass  through  the  meshes  of  the 
various  tissues  of  the  body. 

The  name  tuberculosis  originated  from  the  fact  that 
when  one  of  these  disease  germs  becomes  lodged  at  any 

(267) 


268  SWINE 

point  in  the  body,  it  develops  into  what  is  called  a  tuber- 
cle. That  is,  the  germ  multiplies  very  rapidly,  which 
causes  an  irritation  at  the  point  and  produces  a  swelling. 
As  this  swelling  continues  to  grow  and  the  germs  con- 
tinue to  multiply,  it  becomes  hard,  and  still  later  the  in- 
terior of  it  will  become  mortified,  decompose  and  form  an 
abscess.  The  contents  of  this  abscess  may  be  either  in 
the  form  of  pus  or  may  be  dry  and  gritty. 

The  tubercle  bacilli  gain  entrance  to  the  bodies  of  dif- 
ferent species  of  animals  in  different  ways.  In  the  case 
of  man  and  also  cattle  the  germ  may  be  either  inhaled  or 
taken  in  with  the  food. 

With  swine  the  disease  germs  usually  gain  entrance  by 
being  taken  in  with  the  feed,  hence  by  ingestion.  It  is 
only  seldom  that  the  disease  starts  in  a  hog  by  the  germs 
being  inhaled.  This  being  true,  the  disease  is  very  easily 
controlled  with  swine.  The  parts  affected  first  in  the  hog 
are  usually  the  glands  of  the  lymphatic  system  which  are 
located  in  the  neck  immediately  back  of  the  jaw  bone. 
Thus  if  the  head  of  a  hog  is  cut  off  at  this  point,  it  can 
very  easily  be  determined  whether  the  hog  has  tuber- 
culosis or  not  by  first  examining  these  glands  in  a  healthy 
hog,  and  then  those  of  the  hog  killed.  When  these  glands 
are  affected  with  the  disease  they  take  on  the  nature  of  a 
tubercle ;  that  is,  at  first  they  may  be  simply  enlarged  and 
congested,  and  later  they  may  have  small  pus  particles 
scattered  throughout  which  in  the  final  stages  may  be- 
come one  large  abscess.  As  these  parts  swell  when  the 
tubercle  develops  they  cause  irritation  in  the  throat  and 
may  be  responsible  for  the  coughing  that  results  from  this 
disease.  When  the  lungs  of  a  hog  are  affected,  he  will  of 
course  always  cough.  As  the  disease  develops  the  lym- 
phatic glands  throughout  the  body  are  usually  affected 


TUBERCULOSIS  269 

next,  and  then  the  disease  spreads  to  the  intestines,  the 
liver,  the  spleen,  the  lungs,  the  chest  cavity,  and  may  in 
the  final  stages  be  found  in  most  of  the  inner  parts  of  the 
body. 

PREVALENCE  OF  THE  DISEASE. 

This  disease  is  most  prevalent  among  swine  in » those 
sections  of  the  country  where  cattle  are  most  affected, 
which  usually  is  in  the  dairy  sections  and  sections  where 
beef  cattle  are  being  fed  for  market.  More  hogs  are  being 
condemned  at  the  large  packing  centers  for  tuberculosis 
than  for  all  other  diseases  combined,  including  hog 
cholera.  Furthermore,  while  comparatively  a  few  years 
ago  few  animals  were  condemned,  at  the  present  time  it 
is  thought  that  about  3  per  cent  are  affected,  and  the 
disease  is  gaining  headway  very  rapidly.  That  is,  a  larger 
percentage  of  hogs  is  being  condemned  every  year. 

All  hogs  affected  with  tuberculosis  are  not  necessarily 
condemned.  If  the  disease  is  present  only  in  the  first 
stages,  so  that  just  a  few  organs  of  the  body  are  affected, 
these  parts  only  are  condemned;  while  if  the  disease  has 
become  general  so  that  it  is  found  in  various  parts  of  the 
carcass,  the  entire  hog  is  condemned.  These  condemned 
carcasses  are  almost  a  complete  loss.  They  are  used  for 
the  manufacture  of  cheap  grease  and  fertilizer.  The  lard 
is  rendered  from  such  a  carcass  in  an  enclosed  receptacle 
like  a  steam  boiler  called  a  tank,  by  means  of  live  steam 
under  pressure.  This  boils  out  the  lard  which  is  then 
pressed  from  the  solid  matter.  The  heat  in  such  a  process 
is  sufficiently  great  to  destroy  all  disease  germs.  Thus 
even  if  the  lard,  or  the  rest  of  the  contents  of  the  tank, 
were  used  for  other  purposes  than  those  mentioned  it 
would  not  be  particularly  dangerous. 


270  SWINE 

SOURCE  OF  INFECTION. 

As  already  stated  the  disease  is  caused  by  the  tubercle 
bacilli.  The  question  then  naturally  comes  up,  Whence 
comes  the  germ  that  causes  this  disease  in  swine?  It  is 
usually  caused  by  the  pig  eating  feed  that  is  affected  with 
tuberculosis.  Various  causes  may  be  cited  as  follows : 

Skim  Milk. — Milk  from  tuberculous  cows  may  contain 
the  tubercle  bacilli;  while  all  tuberculous  cows  do  not 
give  tuberculous  milk,  it  is  said  that  as  high  as  twenty  per 
cent  of  them  may  have  the  disease  germ  in  the  milk.  If 
this  is  fed  to  pigs  it  will  naturally  cause  the  disease,  as  a 
pig  is  very  susceptible  to  germs  of  this  nature.  In  order 
to  prevent  this  cause  of  infection  the  dairy  herd  should 
be  thoroughly  freed  from  tuberculous  individuals,  or  else 
the  milk  should  be  sterilized.  This  may  be  done  by  boil- 
ing the  milk  before  it  is  fed.  Pasteurizing  also  destroys 
most  of  the  germs.  The  latter  consists  in  keeping  the 
milk  at  60°  C.  or  140°  F.  for  twenty  minutes. 

Country  Slaughter  Houses. — These  slaughter  houses 
are  very  often  responsible  for  tuberculosis  in  swine.  Such 
places  usually  have  a  drove  of  pigs  present  to  consume 
the  offal  which  otherwise  would  be  wasted.  Eating  the 
entrails  from  the  bodies  of  tuberculous  cattle  that  are 
slaughtered  and  thrown  out  to  the  hogs,  they  will  be 
pretty  sure  to  become  affected  with  tuberculosis.  This 
means  of  infection  is  usually  very  great  because  often  cat- 
tle that  are  not  thrifty  are  sold  and  frequently  are  sold  to 
country  butchers,  because  they  are  sold  at  unusual  times. 
Furthermore,  these  places  do  not  have  government  in- 
spectors, hence  all  the  animals  slaughtered  at  such  places 
pass  into  consumptive  channels  which  is  dangerous  to  the 
hog  eating  the  offal  in  a  raw  state. 


TUBERCULOSIS  271 

Other  Means  of  Infection. — Very  often  cattle  that  die 
on  the  farm  die  of  tuberculosis  and  are  taken  into  the  hog 
lot  where  the  carcass  is  consumed.  In  such  a  case  tuber- 
culosis is  also  started  in  a  herd  of  swine.  If  tuberculous 
cattle  are  being  followed  by  swine  in  a  pasture  or  feed  lot, 
the  disease  will  also  be  transmitted.  The  droppings  from 
such  cattle  may  be  filled  with  the  bacilli  and  the  hogs 
eating  them  will  naturally  eat  the  germs  and  contract  the 
disease.  Human  tuberculosis  even  may  be  transmitted  to 
hogs  in  a  case  where  the  sputum  is  not  properly  taken 
care  of,  but  thrown  into  the  slop  bucket  the  contents  of 
which  are  finally  taken  to  the  hogs. 

If  the  disease  is  once  present  in  a  herd  of  swine  it  may 
be  transferred  from  one  individual  to  others  in  the  herd. 
In  order  to  be  thus  transmitted  the  disease  must  be  suffi- 
ciently far  advanced  that  the  hog  will  cough  up  the  tuber- 
cular material  from  his  lungs  in  the  form  of  sputum,  which 
would  be  responsible  for  starting  the  disease  in  other  in- 
dividuals, especially  if  they  eat  the  sputum.  The  disease 
is  very  readily  transmitted  from  the  sow  to  her  litter.  If 
the  sow  has  tuberculosis  in  a  generalized  form,  and  espe- 
cially if  she  should  have  tuberculosis  of  the  udder,  the 
disease  will  almost  certainly  be  transmitted  to  the  pigs 
sucking  her.  If  the  disease  is  present  in  a  herd,  it  is 
usually  found  in  quite  a  number  of  individuals — not  be- 
cause the  disease  is  easily  transmitted  from  one  indi- 
vidual to  another,  but  because  different  individuals  of  the 
herd  contract  the  disease  from  the  same  source. 

DURATION  OF  THE  DISEASE. 

Tuberculosis  works  much  more  rapidly  with  swine  than 
it  does  with  cattle.  A  pig,  if  affected  when  young,  may 
succumb  to  the  disease  within  a  few  weeks.  At  other 


272  SWINE 

times  the  disease  may  last  much  longer.  A  hog  may  even 
be  affected  with  the  disease  and  not  show  the  effects  of  it 
until  after  he  is  slaughtered.  The  duration  of  the  disease 
also  is  determined  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  by  the  con- 
dition of  the  animal  and  the  amount  of  tubercular  ma- 
terial eaten. 

Kind  of  Pigs  Affected. — Young  pigs  are  more  subject 
to  the  disease  than  older  hogs,  and  brood  sows  are  more 
likely  to  be  affected  than  barrows  because  during  the 
periods  of  gestation  and  lactation  they  are  more  reduced 
in  vitality,  hence  more  subject  to  disease.  A  strong, 
healthy,  vigorous  animal  can  withstand  the  attacks  of 
this  disease  as  well  as  of  others  better  than  one  that  is 
not  in  such  a  condition.  Therefore  it  is  not  necessarily 
true  that  all  animals  eating  tuberculous  feed  become 
affected  with  the  disease.  Those  that  are  weakest  in  con- 
stitution and  have  the  lowest  degree  of  vitality,  or  those 
that  eat  the  largest  quantity  of  the  diseased  material,  are 
the  ones  that  are  affected  first  and  also  are  the  ones  that 
will  succumb  first. 

HANDLING  A  TUBERCULAR  HERD. 

If  the  disease  is  present  in  a  herd,  it  can  very  readily  be 
diagnosed  before  it  has  advanced  sufficiently  far  to  be 
transmitted  from  one  individual  to  another.  The  diag- 
nosis consists  in  knowing  whether  the  animals  are  thrifty 
in  appearance,  whether  they  cough,  whether  they  are 
making  rapid  gains,  or  whether  they  are  gradually  losing 
in  flesh  and  finally  die.  If  the  glands  of  the  neck  are 
affected  to  the  extent  that  they  become  swollen,  this  may 
also  be  used  as  a  means  of  diagnosing.  If  the  disease 
seems  to  be  present  in  a  herd,  the  individuals  that  are  ap- 
parently the  most  affected  should  be  immediately  killed 


TUBERCULOSIS  273 

and  examined.  If  found  to  be  present  by  an  examination 
of  the  glands  of  the  neck,  as  well  as  of  the  internal  organs 
in  general,  noting  whether  these  contain  tubercles — then 
all  the  individuals  that  show  the  effects  of  the  disease  ex- 
ternally should  be  immediately  destroyed  and  the  car- 
casses should  either  be  burned  or  buried  sufficiently  deep 
that  they  will  never  come  to  the  surface.  Thus  the  indi- 
viduals that  are  likely  to  prove  dangerous  are  put  away 
and  the  remainder  of  the  market  herd  should  be  put  on 
the  market  and  passed  upon  by  a  government  inspector 
as  soon  as  they  can  possibly  be  put  into  proper  condition. 
Any  of  these  that  are  sufficiently  diseased  to  render  the 
carcass  unfit  for  food  will  be  condemned  and  put  into  the 
tank  for  cheap  grease  and  fertilizer. 

With  the  present  arrangements  of  packing  house 
methods,  all  animals  that  do  not  show  disease  to  a  suffi- 
cient degree,  either  tuberculosis  or  any  other  disease,  so 
that  it  can  be  recognized  by  the  inspector  at  the  scale  as 
the  hogs  pass  by  him,  are  taken  and  paid  for  by  the  pack- 
ers. Thus  the  loss  to  individuals  who  desire  to  clean  up 
rfieir  herds  of  tubercular  animals  is  not  very  great,  if 
taken  in  time.  However,  if  the  disease  is  not  promptly 
taken  in  hand,  it  may  advance  to  such  a  stage  that  the 
greatest  part  of  the  herd  will  become  a  complete  loss  to 
the  owner.  This  is  especially  true  of  swine  because  the 
disease  works  much  more  rapidly  with  them  than  it  does 
with  cattle. 

If  the  system  of  tagging  that  is  being  advocated  be- 
comes adopted,  it  will  mean  that  the  loss  of  tubercular 
animals  will  fall  directly  upon  the  individual  owner.  By 
this  system  all  the  animals  that  are  slaughtered  will  be 
tagged  and  if  found  diseased  will  be  traced  to  their  owner 
who  has  to  stand  the  loss.  With  present  arrangements 


274  SWINE 

it  is  true  that  the  individual  owner  is  not  the  loser  alone, 
but  the  loss  as  a  whole  falls  upon  the  producer,  for  the 
packer,  knowing  what  per  cent  of  his  hogs  are  con- 
demned daily,  will  pay  sufficiently  less  so  that  this  part 
of  the  loss  is  well  covered. 

Valuable  breeding  animals  need  not  necessarily  be  dis- 
posed of,  but  they  should  be  carefully  watched  and  taken 
in  hand  when  the  disease  first  manifests  itself  and  care 
should  be  exercised  that  the  litter  is  not  allowed  to  suck 
a  tuberculous  udder. 

After  removing  the  tuberculous  individuals  from  a  herd, 
all  places  occupied  by  the  hogs  should  be  thoroughly  dis- 
infected. Buildings  and  all  wooden  surfaces  should  be 
thoroughly,  washed  with  a  five  per  cent  carbolic  acid  solu- 
tion or  1  to  1,000  corrosive  sublimate  solution  (mercuric 
chloride),  and  then  whitewashed  with  a  fresh  lime  mix- 
ture. Pastures  and  feed  lots  exposed  to  the  sun  are  not 
such  a  serious  source  of  danger  as  the  buildings,  but  it  is 
well  to  keep  the  hogs  out  of  infected  pastures  and  feed 
lots  for  a  time  after  removal  of  the  infected  herd.  If  pos- 
sible it  is  well  to  use  other  land  for  the  new  lot  of  hogs 
and  to  plow  up  the  old  pastures  and  lots. 

The  last  but  not  the  least  important  consideration  to 
free  a  herd  from  tuberculosis  is  to  remove  the  cause.  All 
tuberculous  feed  should  at  once  be  withheld. 


CHAPTER  XX. 
HOG   CHOLERA. 

Hog  cholera  exists  principally  in  the  corn  belt  of  the 
United  States.  Its  prevalence  is  not  uniform  from  year 
to  year  and  when  the  disease  does  appear  it  does  not  have 
the  same  degree  of  virulence;  that  is,  sometimes  com- 
paratively few  of  the  hogs  that  have  it  will  die,  while  at 
other  times  nearly  every  individual  in  an  entire  herd  will 
be  taken.  When  it  once  appears  it  spreads  very  rapidly, 
not  only  among  the  individuals  of  a  herd,  but  across  the 
country  from  farm  to  farm.  Thus  it  is  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal drawbacks  to  the  pork-producing  industry  of  the 
United  States.  Many  times  when  a  breeder  gets  nicely 
started  and  gets  a  bunch  of  hogs  almost  ready  for  market, 
the  disease  may  suddenly  attack  and  destroy  his  entire 
herd.  This  will  give  him  a  severe  set-back  from  which  it 
is  very  hard  to  recover,  and  it  is  the  cause  for  the  fact 
that  not  as  many  hogs  are  raised  as  would  be  if  this  dis- 
ease were  not  so  prevalent. 

CAUSE  OF  THE  DISEASE. 

Hog  cholera  is  primarily  a  germ  disease.  It  was  for- 
merly supposed  to  be  caused  by  a  germ  called  Bacillus 
cholera  suis.  Recent  investigations,  however,  have  shown 
that  this  is  not  the  case,  but  that  the  disease  is  caused  by 
some  living  organism  which  is  so  small  that  it  can  pass 
through  the  finest  kind  of  a  porcelain  filter  and  is  so  small 
that  it  has  never  been  detected  with  the  most  powerful 
microscope.  Furthermore,  the  bacillus  of  the  virus  has 

(275) 


276  SWINE 

never  yet  been  successfully  cultivated  by  any  artificial 
method.  So  far  as  known  this  virus  will  not  produce  the 
disease  in  any  other  animal  except  the  hog,  at  least  not  to 
a  fatal  degree. 

Since  this  disease  is  prevalent  to  a  greater  or  less  ex- 
tent only  in  the  corn  belt,  it  might  be  called  a  corn  belt 
disease  and  its  prevalence  depends  apparently  on  the  con- 
dition of  the  animal.  Nature  has  endowed  all  animals 
with  a  means  of  protection  against  disease  germs.  The 
white  blood  corpuscles  of  the  body  perform  this  duty  by 
destroying  disease  germs  as  they  come  into  the  system. 
If  by  any  system  of  feeding  the  general  tone  or  vitality 
of  the  animal  has  been  reduced  to  such  an  extent  that  it  is 
unable  to  destroy  the  disease  germs  as  they  are  brought 
into  the  system,  or  if  these  germs  are  brought  in  in  such 
large  numbers  that  the  natural  means  of  the  animal  with 
which  it  is  endowed  cannot  destroy  them,  then  the  dis- 
ease will  develop.  Since  the  prevalence  of  the  disease 
is  only  in  the  cornbelt  it  would  seem  that  this  reduced 
state  of  vitality  of  the  animal  body  is  entirely  responsible 
for  its  origin.  After  the  disease  once  becomes  estab- 
lished, then  the  germs  will  be  produced  in  such  large 
numbers  that  even  the  most  resistant  of  animals,  except 
those  that  are  naturally  immune  or  have  been  rendered 
immune  artificially,  will  contract  the  disease.  Herds  that 
have  been  properly  fed,  however,  will  not  suffer  so  se- 
verely as  those  that  have  been  improperly  fed. 

MANNER  OF  SPREADING  THE  DISEASE. 

The  disease  may  be  spread  by  association,  which  prob- 
ably means  the  inhalation  by  a  healthy  individual  of  the 
expelled  air  of  a  diseased  animal ;  also  by  ingestion  of  dis- 
eased particles  of  food,  or  of  virus  direct.  Any  means 


HOG  CHOLERA  277 

therefore  that  will  cause  the  spread  of  this  virus  or  of  the 
germs,  will  be  responsible  for  the  spread  of  the  disease. 
Very  often  when  the  disease  breaks  out  in  a  neighbor- 
hood, the  adjoining  farmers  will  come  to  investigate  and 
offer  advice,  and  by  so  doing  they  may  carry  away  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  germs  on  their  boots  to  spread  or  produce 
the  disease  in  their  own  herds.  Dogs  running  across  the 
country,  and  even  crows  flying  from  a -yard  containing 
the  disease  to  a  healthy  herd,  are  supposed  to  carry  suf- 
ficient germs  to  start  the  disease.  The  wind  blowing 
particles  of  dust  from  one  place  to  another  will  also  carry 
with  it  sufficient  of  these  germs  to  start  the  disease. 

PREVENTION  OF  THE  DISEASE. 

Thus  far  there  has  not  been  discovered  any  means  by 
which  this  disease  can  be  cured;  the  only  safeguard, 
therefore,  is  prevention.  Since  hog  cholera,  as  herein  out- 
lined, seems  to  be  a  corn  belt  disease,  it  would  indicate 
that  improper  feeding  is  the  direct  cause  of  an  outbreak 
and  the  prevention,  then,  would  be  proper  feeding.  If  a 
herd  is  properly  fed  so  that  it  has  strong  resistant  powers, 
there  is  apparently  no  danger  of  the  disease  breaking  out. 
From  what  has  been  stated,  if  the  disease  is  in  the  neigh- 
borhood, there  is  danger  of  it  being  carried  to  other  herds, 
and  it  is  well  to  have  every  means  of  prevention  at  hand. 

The  quarantine  method  is  adopted  either  to  prevent  the 
disease  from  gaining  entrance  to  a  herd,  or  to  prevent  its 
spreading  after  it  is  once  started  in  a  herd.  In  order  to 
prevent  a  herd  from  contracting  the  disease,  provided  it 
has  developed  in  the  community,  the  herd  should  be  thor- 
oughly quarantined.  That  is,  it  should  be  completely 
isolated  from  all  external  communication  so  that  there 
will  be  no  possibility  of  the  germs  being  carried  to  it.  A 


278  SWINE 

creek  or  any  other  form  of  running  water  flowing  across 
the  country  will  carry  these  germs.  If  the  diseased  hogs 
are  allowed  access  to  such  a  stream,  sufficient  germs  may 
be  carried  down  the  stream  so  that  any  hogs  having  ac- 
cess to  it  farther  down  will  be  likely  to  contract  the  dis- 
ease. 

In  order  to  prevent  its  spreading  after  the  disease  once 
gains  entrance  to  a  herd,  the  hogs  should  be  divided  up 
into  as  small  lots  as  possible  which  should  be  kept  com- 
pletely isolated  from  each  other.  If  any  of  them  are 
already  affected  and  show  signs  of  sickness,  these  should 
be  entirely  separated  from  the  healthy  ones,  and  the 
healthy  ones  should  be  divided  up  into  as  small  bunches 
as  possible  and  kept  in  separate  pens.  Then  by  exercis- 
ing great  care  in  going  from  the  diseased  hogs  to  the 
healthy  ones, — not  using  the  same  clothes  or  the  same 
apparatus  for  feeding, — there  will  be  the  least  danger  of 
communicating  the  disease  to  other  hogs  in  the  herd. 

Great  care  should  also  be  exercised  when  new  animals 
are  brought  into  a  herd.  It  is  usually  well  to  quarantine 
these  for  a  period  of  about  three  weeks  so  as  to  be  sure 
that  they  do  not  have  the  cholera,  before  they  are  put  into 
the  general  herd.  Unaffected  hogs  may  be  bought  from 
entirely  healthy  herds,  but  this  is  not  always  true,  as 
the  herds  from  which  the  hogs  are  purchased  may  have 
been  recently  infected  and  the  disease  not  yet  developed 
so  as  to  be  noticed.  The  period  of  incubation,  or  the 
period  from  the  time  the  disease  germs  are  taken  into  the 
system  to  the  time  that  the  disease  appears,  is  from  one 
to  two  weeks.  Consequently,  diseased  animals  may  be 
bought  when  a  herd  is  apparently  entirely  healthy.  Fur- 
thermore, healthy  individuals  shipped  across  the  country 
may  come  in  contact  with  the  disease  in  various  forms; 


HOG   CHOLERA  279 

they  may  be  shipped  in  infected  cars,  they  may  pass 
through  infected  localities,  and  they  may  come  in  contact 
with  diseased  animals  en  route.  This  is  especially  true  if 
they  pass  through  stock  yards  and  thus  get  the  disease 
which  will  manifest  itself  after  the  pig  reaches  its  destina- 
tion, and  if  not  quarantined  may  inoculate  the  entire  herd. 

GOVERNMENT  HOG  CHOLERA  SERUM. 

The  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  has  developed  a  serum  which, 
by  means  of  vaccination,  will  render  hogs  immune  (not 
subject)  to  hog  cholera. 

Preparation  of  the  Serum. — In  order  to  prepare  this 
serum  an  immune  hog  must  first  be  obtained,  either  one 
that  is  naturally  immune  to  the  disease  or  one  that  has 
been  rendered  immune  artificially.  This  hog  is  hyper- 
immunized.  This  consists  of  inoculating  him  in  the  mus- 
cles of  the  thigh  with  about  1000  c.  c.*  of  virulent  hog 
cholera  blood,  from  which  the  clot  has  been  removed,  per 
hundred  pounds  live  weight  of  hog.  The  hypodermic  in- 
oculation consists  simply  in  placing  the  inoculating  fluid 
beneath  the  skin  or  in  the  muscle  of  the  hog,  which  is 
done  by  means  of  a  syringe  that  has  a  hollow  pointed 
needle.  The  syringe  is  filled,  the  needle  forced  through 
the  skin,  and  the  contents  expelled.  But  in  the  case  of 
inoculations  of  this  kind  this  fluid  is  usually  forced  into 
the  muscles  of  the  thigh,  in  which  form  it  is  more  satis- 
factory. There  are  two  ways  in  which  this  hyper-im- 
munization is  brought  about.  First,  the  inoculating  fluid, 
or  the  1000  c.  c.  of  virulent  hog  cholera  serum  which  is 
injected  into  a  hundred-pound  pig,  may  be  injected  at  one 
and  the  same  time.  This  is  called  the  quick  method.  The 
slow  method  consists  in  using  a  part  of  this  amount  of 


"Cubic   centimeters 


280  SWINE 

serum  at  one  time,  taking  a  small  quantity  to  begin  with, 
after  a  week  a  larger  quantity,  and  still  later  a  larger 
quantity  still,  until  the  entire  amount  is  used  in  three  or 
four  inoculations.  When  an  immune  hog  is  thus  inocu- 
lated, it  is  said  to  have  been  hyper-immunized. 

If  a  naturally  immune  hog  is  not  at  hand,  or  cannot  be 
obtained,  and  the  serum  is  to  be  prepared,  a  hog  must 
first  be  made  immune  as  will  be  described  later  in  the 
regular  process  of  protecting  hogs  from  hog  cholera,  and 
following  this  he  is  hyper-immunized  as  already  stated; 
that  is,  by  being  inoculated  with  1000  c.  c.  of  defibrinated 
hog  cholera  serum  from  a  hog  that  is  sick  with  hog 
cholera.  This  may  be  done  by  the  quick  method,  inject- 
ing the  serum  all  at  once,  or  by  the  slow  method  by  which 
it  is  injected  at  three  or  four  different  times,  starting 
with  a  relatively  small  proportion  of  this  quantity  and 
then  gradually  using  larger  quantities  in  successive  weeks 
thereafter. 

About  a  week  after  the  injection  of  the  serum  in  the 
'process  of  hyper-immunization,  the  hog  is  ready  to  have 
his  blood  drawn  for  the  regular  process  of  protecting  hogs 
from  hog  cholera.  The  blood  may  be  drawn  by  two  proc- 
esses :  The  hog  may  be  killed  and  his  entire  quantity  of 
blood  taken  at  once,  or  he  may  be  bled  at  the  tail.  The 
latter  method  is  usually  resorted  to.  The  tail  is  thor- 
oughly cleaned  and  disinfected  with  an  antiseptic  solu- 
tion and  then  the  end  is  cut  off  so  as  to  allow  the  blood 
to  flow  out,  which  is  caught  in  a  sterilized  bottle  under 
antiseptic  conditions,  or  under  conditions  such  that  it 
does  not  become  infected  with  foreign  germs  of  any  kind. 
By  this  method,  from  300  to  600  c.  c.  of  blood  may  be 
obtained  at  one  time.  This  is  repeated  two  or  three  times 
at  intervals  of  a  week.  It  cannot  be  carried  on  longer 


HOG   CHOLERA  281 

than  this  because  the  blood  gradually  loses  the  properties 
that  it  has  acquired  by  the  hyper-immunizing  process  and 
will  no  longer  protect  hogs  from  hog  cholera. 

After  the  blood  has  been  collected  by  either  one  of  the 
methods  here  described,  it  is  allowed  to  clot,  and  then 
is  filtered  through  sterilized  gauze  so  as  to  get  the  serum 
or  the  liquid  part  of  the  blood  separated  from  the  clot. 
The  serum  or  the  liquid  portion  is  the  part  that  is  used. 
This  is  mixed  with  a  five  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic 
acid,  making  a  .5  per  cent  solution,  in  which  form  it  is 
more  easily  preserved.  . 

Use  of  the  Serum. — In  order  to  protect  hogs  from  hog 
cholera,  they  are  inoculated  hypodermically,  as  previous- 
ly stated,  with  the  hog  cholera  serum.  In  order  to  pro- 
tect hogs  from  this  disease,  they  must  be  inoculated  with 
the  serum  before  they  have  contracted  the  disease,  or  at 
least  within  four  days  after  being  exposed.  Twenty  to 
thirty  c.  c.  of  this  serum  is  used  for  a  hog  weighing  30  to 
75  pounds.  If  a  hog  is  thus  inoculated  with  this  serum, 
he  will  be  rendered  temporarily  immune,  and  his  immun- 
ity is  supposed  to  last  several  weeks.  Such  immunity, 
however,  is  not  as  great  as  by  means  of  the  serum  simul- 
taneous method. 

According  to  this  method,  the  hog  is  inoculated  with 
this  serum,  which  is  usually  injected  into  the  muscle  of 
the  thigh  on  one  side  of  his  body,  and  at  the  same  time, 
two  or  three  c.  c.  of  virulent  hog  cholera  serum,  obtained 
from  a  diseased  hog  and  prepared  in  a  way  so  that  the 
clot  has  been  removed  from  the  serum,  is  injected  into 
the  muscle  on  the  inside  of  the  thigh  of  the  other  side  of 
the  body.  Two  to  three  c.  c.  of  virulent  hog  cholera 
serum  is  considered  a  fatal  dose  when  injected  into  a  hog 
without  the  serum  from  a  hyper-immune  hog,  and  will 


282  SWINE 

produce  a  fatal  case  of  hog  cholera.  Thus  by  injecting  the 
virulent  hog  cholera  serum  on  one  side  of  the  hog,  and 
the  protective  serum  from  a  hyper-immunized  hog  on  the 
other  side,  the  hog  is  rendered  immune.  This  immunity 
is  much  greater  than  in  the  case  where  the  serum  alone  is 
used,  and  lasts  for  a  much  longer  time.  Where  by  sim- 
ple inoculation  with  the  serum  the  hog  is  rendered  im- 
mune for  several  weeks,  if  he  is  inoculated  by  the  serum, 
simultaneous  method  he  will  be  rendered  immune  for 
several  months,  and  possibly  a  great  deal  longer.  Such 
immunity  is  thought  to  be  permanent  in  some  instances. 
As  just  outlined  it  will  be  seen  that  this  is  a  process 
of  vaccination.  By  inoculating  according  to  the  simple 
method  where  the  serum  from  an  immune  hog  is  used 
alone,  it  will  have  the  germs  or  whatever  else  the  virus 
may  be,  that  cause  the  disease,  but  in  such  an  attenuated 
form  that  it  will  render  the  hog  but  slightly  immune.  By 
the  serum  simultaneous  process  where  the  virulent  hog 
cholera  serum  is  injected  into  one  side,  and  the  protective 
serum  from  the  hyper-immunized  hog  on  the  other  side, 
the  properties  of  the  latter  will  conteract  the  virulence 
of  the  disease  germs  of  the  former,  thus  producing  the 
disease  in  a  mild  form,  but  not  sufficiently  virulent  to  be 
fatal,  and  at  the  same  time  developing  in  the  hog  pro- 
tective means  by  which  it  can  resist  future  attacks  of 
this  virus. 

Curative  Properties  of  the  Serum. — So  far  as  is  known 
at  the  present  time,  the  serum  has  no  curative  properties 
whatever.  That  is,  after  a  hog  shows  symptoms  of  the 
disease  known  as  hog  cholera,  he  cannot  be  saved,  unless 
he  would  live  through  the  disease  anyway,  by  being  inoc- 
ulated with  this  hog  cholera  serum.  However,  the  pro- 
tective properties  of  the  serum  may  be  used  to  advantage 


HOG  CHOLERA  283 

even  up  to  four  days  after  exposure.  Thus  it  is  seen  that 
a  considerable  number  of  hogs  of  a  herd  may  be  saved 
even  after  the  disease  breaks  out.  The  entire  number 
would  probably  not  be  exposed  at  the  beginning,  and  fur- 
thermore, the  disease  is  not  transmitted  from  one  indi- 
vidual to  the  next  in  the  herd  until  after  it  breaks  out, 
and  there  is  a  period  of  incubation  between  the  time  the 
hog  is  exposed  and  the  time  the  disease  breaks  out  or 
manifests  itself.  Thus  after  the  disease  appears  in  visible 
form  in  a  herd,  if  the  healthy  individuals  are  immediately 
inoculated,  a  greater  portion  of  them  may  be  saved.  In 
such  a  case,  the  simple  method  of  inoculation  by  using  the 
protective  serum  alone,  and  not  the  virulent  hog  cholera 
serum,  will  furnish  practically  the  same  results  in  the  in- 
dividuals that  were  already  exposed  as  would  otherwise 
be  obtained  where  the  entire  healthy  herd  is  treated  by 
means  of  the  serum  simultaneous  method;  because  after 
being  exposed  to  the  disease,  the  hog  has  already  in  his 
system  the  virus  or  the  germs  that  produce  the  disease, 
the  same  as  would  be  introduced  by  injecting  into  the  hog 
the  two  or  three  c.  c.  of  virulent  hog  cholera  serum.  The 
protective  serum  that  is  injected  at  such  a  time  will  coun- 
teract the  disease  germs  that  are  already  in  the  system 
and  thus  render  the  hogs  more  or  less  permanently  im- 
mune, at  least  for  a  period  of  several  months. 

Objections  to  the  Serum  Method  of  Treatment. — The 

two  principal  objections  to  this  method  of  treating  hogs 
to  protect  them  from  hog  cholera  are  that  it  is  expensive, 
and  that  it  is  somewhat  dangerous.  It  is  expensive  be- 
cause a  hog  will  furnish  a  comparatively  small  amount  of 
blood,  from  1000  to  2000  c.  c.,  from  which  the  serum  can 
be  obtained.  Considering  that  the  clot  must  be  taken 
from  this,  and  that  it  requires  from  20  to  30  c.  c.  for  a 


284  SWINE 

comparatively  small  hog, — that  is  30  to  75  pounds, — it 
can  readily  be  seen  that  the  expense  of  this  method  is  an 
item  of  considerable  importance.  Furthermore,  the  hogs 
from  which  this  serum  is  to  be  obtained  must  first  be  ren- 
dered immune  and  then  hyper-immune,  which  involves 
labor  and  expense  and  the  danger  of  losing  some  individ- 
uals; besides  this  the  process  of  manufacturing  must  be 
continued  indefinitely  so  as  to  have  the  serum  on  hand 
for  any  possible  outbreaks  of  the  disease.  Although  the 
serum  may  be  kept  for  a  considerable  length  of  time,  it 
is  not  considered  that  'it  will  keep  indefinitely.  When 
prepared  with  the  carbolic  acid  solution,  and  kept  in 
ordinary  cellar  temperature,  it  may  be  preserved  for  sev- 
eral months. 

The  hyper-immunizing  process  is  dangerous  because  it 
requires  the  use  of  the  virulent  hog  cholera  serum,  or 
serum  containing  the  living  hog  cholera  organisms. 
When  this  is  used  without  the  protective  serum  an  out- 
break of  hog  cholera  is  immediately  started.  Thus  if  this 
method  of  treatment  is  put  into  the  hands  of  people  who 
are  not  thoroughly  familiar  with  this  sort  of  work,  there 
is  danger  of  spreading  hog  cholera  broadcast. 

Since  the  development  of  this  hog  cholera  serum  by  the 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  of  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  various  state  experiment  stations 
have  taken  u£>  the  work  and  have  tried  to  improve  upon 
it.  At  different  places  the  method  has  been  somewhat 
modified.  In  some  cases,  the  hog  in  being  rendered 
hyper-immune,  is  fed  the  viscera  of  hog  cholera  hogs  in 
connection  with  being  inoculated  with  the  virulent  hog 
cholera  serum. 

The  horse  and  also  the  donkey  have  been  used  as  a 
means  of  producing  serum  that  .shall  have  the  same  prop- 


HOG  CHOLERA  285 

erties  as  the  serum  of  the  hyper-immunized  hog.  While 
this  work  has  been  more  or  less  successful,  it  has  not  as 
yet  been  carried  far  enough  to  have  any  very  definite 
results.  It  can  easily  be  seen  that  if  the  blood  serum  of 
a  horse  could  be  used,  it  could  be  made  much  more 
cheaply  because  the  horse  will  produce  a  very  much 
greater  quantity  of  blood  serum.  In  the  case  of  hogs, 
individuals  from  which  the  blood  is  drawn,  after  being 
hyper-immunized,  are  not  necessarily  a  loss  because  the 
carcasses  of  such;  hogs  can  be  used  for  pork. 

SYMPTOMS  OF  THE  DISEASE. 

The  symptoms  of  ho£  cholera  given  briefly  are  as  fol- 
lows-: Pigs  having  the  disease  will  present  the  general 
appearance  of  sickness  and  may  have  a  short  hacking 
cough.  They  lose  spirit  and  activity,  the  ears  and  tail 
droop,  the  coat  becomes  rough  and  the  pigs  lose  their 
appetite,  become  weak  and  are  disinclined  to  move  about. 
They  may  at  first  be  constipated  and  then  develop 
diarrhea,  passing  dark  and  very  offensive  feces.  In  very 
acute  cases  the  pigs  may  even  die  before  sickness  is  no- 
ticed. The  skin  at  the  more  tender  parts  may  be  red  and 
inflamed.  Other  ailments  may  also  produce  these  same 
symptoms  except  the  feces. 

On  post-mortem  examination  yellow  and  tlack  ulcers 
may  be  found  in  the  wall  of  the  intestine.  In  acute  cases 
these  may  not  be  found  and  the  internal  organs  and  body 
fluid  may  be  red,  or  the  intestines  and  other  internal 
organs  may  be  dotted  with  small  red  spots,  and  some- 
times only  a  few  red  pin-points  are  found  on  the  kidneys 
and  it  may  even  be  necessary  to  remove  the  outer  mem- 
brane to  see  these. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 
LICE. 

The  hog  in  his  natural  state  is  not  known  to  be  affected 
with  these  parasites.  Hence  it  is  clearly  a  malady  that 
has  either  been  brought  on,  or  allowed  to  develop  under 
the  conditions  of  domestication.  The  hog  louse  is  a  flat, 
oval  insect  of  a  dark  color,  and  comparable  in  size  when 
full  grown  to  a  flax  seed  or  a  grain  of  wheat.  It  lives 
upon  the  skin  of  the  hog  and  saps  his  blood,  thus  reducing 
the  vitality,  and  when  badly  infested  the  hog  may  become 
decidedly  unthrifty. 

MEANS  OF  COMBATING. 

Since  wild  hogs  do  not  have  lice,  there  must  be  a  nat- 
ural means  of  destroying  the  lice  or  else  the  conditions 
under  which  the  wild  hog  lives  are  such  that  this  insect 
cannot  develop. 

The  Mud  Wallow. — The  mud  wallow  is  the  natural 
means  of  destroying  lice.  It  is  a  well  known  fact  that 
many  herds  of  swine  are  never  affected  with  lice;  also 
that  hogs  having  free  access  to  good  mud  wallows  are  not 
troubled  in  this  way.  Hog  lice  cannot  live  under  a  coat- 
ing of  mud ;  consequently  when  a  hog  has  access  to  a  mud 
wallow  and  covers  himself  entirely  over  with  mud,  the 
lice  will  be  destroyed,  or  at  least  driven  off.  One  means 
of  destroying  lice  then,  is  supplying  the  pigs  with  a  good 
mud  wallow.  While  this  may  have  some  objections, 
nevertheless  it  also  has  advantages  besides  the  destruc- 
tion of  lice. 

(286) 


LICE  287 

A  mud  wallow  will  afford  white  hogs  a  means  of  pro- 
tection from  the  heat  of  the  sun.  A  coating  of  black  mud 
on  a  white  hog  will  serve  the  same  purpose  as  the  black 
cuticle  of  the  black  hog,  namely,  it  will  arrest  the  rays  of 
the  sun  and  not  allow  the  entire  quantity  to  go  into  the 
interior  of  the  body.  A  hog  that  has  free  access  to  a  mud 
wallow  can  keep  cool  during  the  heated  weather  by  lying 
in  the  mud  and  this  also  puts  the  skin  of  a  hog  in  good 
condition.  After  being  taken  out  of  the  mud  wallow  and 
thoroughly  cleaned  and  dressed  up,  a  hog  is  in  very  good 
show  condition  so  far  as  his  skin  is  concerned.  When 
the  mud  wallow  is  used,  it  should  be  kept  sanitary.  A 
good  way  to  do  this  is  to  have  a  small  stream  of  water 
running  through  it  at  all  times. 

The  Water  Wallow. — Lice  are  also  destroyed  by  hav- 
ing water  wallows  and  using  either  crude  oil  or  some  of 
the  coal  tar  dips  in  the  water.  The  most  natural  water 
wallow,  namely,  a  creek  or  other  stream,  cannot  be  pre- 
pared in  this  way,  but  where  the  water  stands  either  in 
pools  on  the  ground  naturally,  or  where  a  cement  trough 
is  provided  for  this  purpose,  the  water  may  be  properly 
prepared  to  destroy  lice  as  the  pigs  wallow  in  it.  This 
also  should  be  kept  sanitary. 

The  Rubbing  Post. — The  rubbing  post  is  sometimes 
used  as  a  means  for  destroying  lice.  Lice  usually  first 
inhabit  the  arm  pit,  or  place  between  the  forearm  and 
brisket,  and  the  place  back  of  the  ears  on  the  neck.  The 
lice  as  well  as  the  nits  will  usually  be  found  in  these 
places  first  and  later  they  will  spread  over  the  entire 
body.  The  nits  or  eggs  are  small  elongated  white  objects 
that  may  readily  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye  and  are  fas- 
tened to  the  hairs.  The  rubbing  post  is  intended  to  de- 
stroy the  lice  and  nits  at  the  side  of  the  hog,  and  espe- 


288  SWINE 

cially  at  the  side  of  the  neck,  and  may  also  help  to  keep 
other  parts  of  the  hog  free.  Such  a  post  is  made  of  hard 
wood  set  in  the  ground.  A  hole  is  bored  down  in  the  cen- 
ter of  this  post  from  the  top ;  holes  are  also  bored  in  the 
side  of  the  post  meeting  the  center  hole  and  these  are 
plugged  with  soft  wood.  The  hole  in  the  post  is  then 
rilled  with  kerosene  oil,  which  will  seep  through  the  soft 
wood  plugs  to  the  outside  of  the  post.  Kerosene  or  any 
other  form  of  oil  is  deadly  to  insects  of  any  kind  because 
they  breathe  by  means  of  small  openings  in  the  side  of 
their  body.  If  a  little  oil  is  put  on  an  insect  these  breath- 
ing pores  will  be  stopped  up  and  the  insect  will  die  as 
quickly  as  an  animal  would  if  put  beneath  the  water. 
Thus  when  the  hog  rubs  against  this  post,  he  gets  the  oil 
onto  his  skin,  and  this  will  destroy  the  lice  and  also  the 
nits  which  the  oil  touches.  , 

Rubbing  and  Spraying  with  Oil. — Another  means  of 
destroying  lice  is  by  simply  rubbing  those  parts  of  the 
hog  infested  with  nits  with  a  cloth  soaked  in  kerosene  or 
in  any  other  form  of  grease.  While  this  is  a  rather  slow 
process  it  is  very  effective. 

A  more  rapid  means  is  with  a  spray  pump.  Either  a 
kerosene  emulsion,  which  is  a  solution  of  kerosene  and 
water,  or  crude  oil  may  be  used.  Ordinarily  a  force  spray 
pump,  such  as  can  be  set  into  a  bucket  of  the  solution, 
held  in  place  with  one  foot  and  worked  with  one  hand,  is 
used.  The  short  piece  of  hose  containing  the  nozzle  is 
held  in  the  other  hand,  and  after  the  hogs  are  driven  into 
their  sleeping  place  or  cot,  they  are  thoroughly  sprayed. 
In  such  an  operation  care  must  be  taken  to  entirely  cover 
the  hog  at  all  points  with  the  solution.  This  is  some- 
times difficult  to  do  as  the  under  side  of  a  hog,  especially 
in  the  arm  pits,  is  not  very  easily  reached.  The  advan- 


LICE  289 

tage  of  this  system  is  that  if  hogs  are  thus  sprayed  in 
their  sleeping  cots  these  places  are  also  freed  from  lice. 

Kerosene  emulsion  usually  contains  from  5  to  10  per 
cent  of  kerosene.  Since  oil  and  water  do  not  mix  very 
readily,  care  must  be  taken  as  to  how  this  is  prepared. 
One  way  to  make  kerosene  emulsion  is  to  take  one-half 
pound  of  hard  soap  and  dissolve  it  in  one  gallon  of  hot 
water  and  then  add  two  gallons  of  a  cheap  grade  of  kero- 
sene. With  a  high  grade  of  oil  a  smaller  quantity  will 
suffice.  This  should  then  be  thoroughly  emulsified,  or 
mixed,  which  is  probably  done  the  best  by  means  of  the 
spray  pump  just  mentioned.  The  pump  set  into  the 
bucket  containing  the  hard  soap,  water  and  kerosene,  may 
be  worked  and  by  turning  the  nozzle  back  into  the  bucket 
thoroughly  mix  the  solution.  After  being  thoroughly 
mixed  in  this  way,  the  hard  soap  tends  to  keep  the  oil  in 
suspension,  then  seven  gallons  of  water  should  be  added 
and  the  whole  again  well  mixed ;  it  is  then  ready  for  use. 

The  Dipping  Tank. — One  of  the  best  methods  of  de- 
stroying lice  is  by  means  of  the  dipping  tank.  The  cut  (36) 
shows  this  piece  of  apparatus  as  in  use  at  the  Illinois  Ex- 
periment Station  farm.  Various  solutions  may  be  used 
in  this  as  well  as  by  the  other  means  of  destroying  lice. 
Coal  tar  dips  are  frequently  used  and  are  quite  effective, 
but  not  always  so.  They  have  a  tendency  to  destroy  the 
greater  part  of  the  lice,  or  at  least  drive  them  away,  but 
they  do  not  destroy  the  nits.  It  is  necessary  therefore  to 
dip  a  second  time  about  ten  days  after  the  first  dip  to  de- 
stroy the  lice  hatched  from  the  nits,  and  in  practice  it  is 
found  that  if  hogs  are  to  be  kept  free  from  lice  with  coal 
tar  dips  they  must  be  used  frequently.  It  has  also  been 
found  on  different  occasions  that  hog  lice  may  be  given  a 
bath  in  a  solution  of  the  coal  tar  dips  and  not  be  seriously 


290 


SWINE 


LICE  291 

affected.  Consequently  this  treatment  is  not  always  fatal 
to  lice.  Coal  tar  dips,  however,  have  the  advantage  of 
having  antiseptic  properties,  hence  the  skin  of  the  hog 
when  dipped  in  such  a  solution  will  be  kept  in  good  con- 
dition. Kerosene  emulsion  may  be  used  in  the  dipping 
tank,  but  this  is  somewhat  expensive  and  difficult  to  pre- 
pare. 

One  of  the  best  solutions  and  one  of  the  cheapest  prep- 
arations for  destroying  lice  is  crude  oil.  This  may  be 
used  by  filling  the  tank  nearly  full  of  water  and  then 
pouring  a  few  gallons  of  oil  into  this.  The  oil  will  float 
on  the  surface  of  the  water.  When  hogs  are  driven 
through  and  made  to  dive  into  this  solution  at  one  end  of 
the  tank  and  swim  to  the  other  end  and  walk  out  they  are 
thoroughly  covered  with  oil  at  all  points.  Oil  in  this  form 
also  is  not  sufficiently  strong  to  do  any  harm  to  the  hog. 
Furthermore,  it  will  destroy  all  lice  as  well  as  the  nits. 

A  convenient  arrangement  of  a  dipping  tank  is  shown 
in  the  foregoing  cut.  The  tank  is  set  into  the  ground. 
The  available  commercial  tanks  are  usually  made  of  gal- 
vanized iron.  Cement  can  also  be  used  and  is  more  dur- 
able. The  tank  should  be  wide  enough  so  that  a  hog 
will  not  become  wedged  in  and  deep  enough  to  allow  the 
hog  to  go  completely  under.  The  lower  corner  should  be 
cut  off  at  both  ends,  thus  making  an  incline  where  the  hog 
goes  in  and  also  where  he  comes  out.  A  platform  is  built 
at  the  end  at  which  the  hogs  are  to  be  driven  in  somewhat 
higher  than  the  level  of  the  tank  and  an  incline  is  made 
from  this  platform  into  the  tank.  The  lower  end  of  this 
incline  should  be  at  the  surface  of  the  liquid  in  the  tank. 
In  order  to  get  the  hogs  onto  the  platform  a  chute  must 
be  built  from  the  rear  leading  up  to  it.  This  as  well  as 
the  platform  and  the  incline  must  be  enclosed  with  a  fence 


292  SWINE 

sufficiently  high  that  the  hogs  cannot  jump  over.  The 
sides  of  the  tank  also  should  be  provided  with  boards  that 
the  liquid  cannot  slop  over  so  easily. 

After  pigs  have  been  driven  through  such  a  tank  once, 
they  become  wise  and  are  more  difficult  to  take  through  a 
second  time.  In  order  to  facilitate  matters  a  trap  door  is 
arranged  on  the  top  of  the  platform.  This  is  hinged  at 
the  point  where  the  platform  meets  the  in-line.  At  the 
front  of  this  incline  where  it  meets  the  solution  is  a  wide 
board  or  door  hinged  at  the  top  to  prevent  the  hog  from 
seeing  what  is  ahead.  Thus  after  the  hog  is  driven  onto 
the  platform,  and  he  walks  far  enough  forward,  the  trap, 
which  should  be  made  of  hard  wo'od  laid  lengthwise  so  as 
to  make  it  slippery,  will  go  down  in  front  and  allow  the 
hog  to  slide  into  the  tank.  The  board  in  front  will  pre- 
vent him  from  jumping  across  and  will  also  allow  him  to 
slide  into  the  solution  head  first  and  without  injury  to 
himself.  If  he  should  jump  against  this  and  throw  it 
forward,  the  attendant  may  stand  at  the  side  and  hold  it, 
thus  allowing  the  hog  to  slide  into  the  solution  quietly 
and  without  injury.  The  hog  should  go  in  head  first,  take 
a  dive,  and  then  swim  through  to  the  other  end,  where 
there  is  an  inclined  board  with  cleats  which  will  allow 
him  to  walk  up  and  out  easily.  This  is  also  arranged  with 
a  drain  board  to  catch  the  liquid  that  runs  off  the  hog  and 
allow  it  to  run  back  into  the  tank.  The  lower  part  of  the 
tank  is  connected  with  a  tile  drain  to  draw  off  the  water 
in  case  it  rains,  thus  preventing  the  oil  from  running  off 
at  the  top;  also  when  the  tank  becomes  dirty,  the  liquid 
may  be  easily  drawn  off  and  the  dirt  shoveled  out. 

Another  means  of  helping  to  keep  hogs  free  from  lice  is 
by  keeping  their  habitations  clean  because  the  pens  also 
usually  afford  lodging  places  for  lice  and  nits.  All  rub- 


LICE  293 

bish  should  be  kept  cleaned  out  of  the  pens  and  they  may 
also  be  sprayed  and  then  whitewashed.  Lice  may  also  be 
destroyed  in  the  cracks  in  buildings  by  spraying  with  a 
solution  of  hot  salt  brine. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 
OTHER  AILMENTS  OF  SWINE. 

WORMS. 

It  is  said  that  one  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  nine  of 
cure,  and  this  is  true  in  every  sense  of  the  word  in  regard 
to  worms  in  swine.  These  internal  parasites  consist  of 
worms  of  various  kinds.  They  inhabit  the  stomach,  the 
intestines,  and  sometimes  the  lungs.  There  are  several 
remedies  that  will  free  hogs  from  worms,  all  of  which 
should  be  administered  to  the  hog  when  his  stomach  is 
empty;  that  is,  when  treatment  is  to  be  given,  the  hog 
should  be  allowed  to  go  for  about  one  day  with  little  or 
no  feed  and  then  given  a  small  amount  of  some  palatable 
feed  with  the  worm  remedy  in  solution. 

Cure. — Fluid  extract  of  spigelia  and  senna  given  in  one- 
half  ounce  doses  every  four  hours  until  purging  starts  in 
is  an  effective  though  rather  expensive  remedy.  After 
purging  begins  the  doses  should  be  discontinued. 

Another  good  remedy  for  worms  is  santonin.  This  is 
a  white  powder  which  can  be  bought  at  most  drug  stores. 
It  should  be  thoroughly  dissolved  in  warm  or  hot  water 
and  then  mixed  in  the  slop  and  fed  to  the  pigs.  An  ounce 
of  santonin  is  said  to  be  sufficient  for  fifty  to  sixty  hogs 
weighing  a  hundred  pounds  each.  This  should  be  fol- 
lowed with  a  physic  to  drive  off  the  worms  after  being 
destroyed,  and  treatment  should  be  repeated  after  a  few 
days. 

A  one  per  cent  solution  of  coal  tar  creosote  given  in 
one  ounce  doses  on  an  empty  stomach  and  repeated  in  ten 
days  is  also  said  to  be  an  effective  remedy  for  worms. 


OTHER  AILMENTS   OF   SWINE  295 

Prevention. — The  best  method,  however,  of  handling 
this  evil  in  the  swine  growing  industry  is  by  prevention. 
Well  fed  hogs,  in  general,  are  not  subject  to  worms, — that 
is,  a  hog  in  good  condition  is  better  able  to  resist  this  par- 
asite than  one  that  is  not  in  good  condition.  If  a  hog  is 
fed  a  proper  and  well  balanced  ration,  including  mineral 
substances  as  well  as  the  other  nutrients,  he  is  not  likely 
tu  be  troubled  sufficiently  with  worms  that  they  need 
cause  any  worry.  Furthermore,  he  will  be  better  able  to 
resist  the  attacks  of  other  forms  of  disease.  By  giving 
free  access  to  various  mineral  substances,  such  as  wood 
ashes,  charcoal,  air-slaked  lime,  and  coal  cinders,  the  hog 
apparently  will  take  care  of  the  worm  evil  himself.  It 
seems  that  the  alkali  of  wood  ashes  together  with  gritty 
cinders  have  a  tendency  to  destroy  worms.  At  any  rate 
these  mineral  substances  help  to  balance  the  ration  so 
that  the  hog  has  greater  powers  of  resistance.  If  pump- 
kins are  fed  in  the  fall  of  the  year  the  seeds  which  have 
vermifuge  properties  also  help  to  keep  hogs  free  from 
worms. 

In  order  to  keep  hogs  free  from  worms  they  should 
have  sanitary  places  in  which  to  live  and  also  their  water 
troughs,  if  such  are  used,  should  be  kept  thoroughly  clean. 
If  foul  water  is  allowed  to  stand  in  these  from  day  to 
day  it  affords  an  excellent  place  for  worms  to  develop. 

SCOURS. 

Scours  in  pigs  usually  results  from  two  causes, — either 
from  improper  feeding  or  by  contagion.  Improper  feed- 
ing that  results  in  scours  usually  consists  of  two  forms, 
excess  of  feed,  and  particularly  of  protein,  and  sudden 
changes  in  the  ration,  especially  from  sweet  to  sour  and 
from  sour  to  sweet  feeds.  This  trouble  is  usually  preva- 


296  SWINE 

lent  to  a  maximum  degree  in  young  pigs  soon  after  far- 
rowing, and  with  pigs  at  weaning  time. 

Over  Feeding. — If  a  sow  is  not  properly  fed  immedi- 
ately before  or  immediately  after  farrowing,  so  that  she 
has  more  milk  than  the  pigs  can  take,  it  will  result  in 
scours  either  from  having  the  milk  of  the  dam  in  a  fever- 
ish condition,  or  from  having  a  greater  supply  than  the 
pigs  should  take,  in  which  latter  case  the  pigs  will  eat 
more  than  they  can  properly  take  care  of  after  it  is  eaten. 

At  weaning  time  pigs  are  very  often  overfed,  especially 
on  protein.  This  is  true  frequently  where  skim  milk  is 
fed.  Many  people  having  skim  milk  do  not  consider  it 
much  more  valuable  as  a  food  for  pigs  than  water ;  hence 
they  give  the  pigs  all  the  milk  that  they  can  possibly  take 
and  sometimes  they  drink  so  much  that  they  look  like 
stuffed  toads.  It  must  be  remembered  that  skim  milk  is 
whole  milk  with  the  fat  taken  out.  The  fat  is  the  car- 
bonaceous part  of  the  solid  matter  in  milk;  hence  when 
this  is  taken  out,  the  skim  milk  has  relatively  more  pro- 
tein than  whole  milk.  If  pigs  drink  an  unusually  large 
amount  of  this,  they  will  get  an  excess  of  protein  which 
may  be  more  than  the  pig  can  properly  take  care  of  and 
will  naturally  start  a  case  of  scours.  Even  if  the  pig  can 
digest  all  he  eats,  it  may  result  in  an  excess  of  protein, 
setting  up  a  high  factor  of  waste,  which,  as  already  out- 
lined, consumes  a  large  part  of  the  ration,  thereafter  mak- 
ing such  a  pig  a  much  more  unprofitable  feeder. 

Sudden  Changes. — Sudden  changes  in  feed  result  in 
scours  not  because  feeds  of  one  kind  are  not  as  good  as 
feeds  of  another  kind,  but  because  it  takes  the  pig  a  con- 
siderable length  of  time  to  become  accustomed  to  differ- 
ent kinds  of  feeds  or  to  feeds  in  different  conditions.  Thus 
if  the  ration  of  a  pig  is  changed  from  sour  to  sweet  slop, 


OTHER  AILMENTS   OF   SWINE  297 

or  vice  versa,  or  from  sweet  milk  to  sour  milk,  it  is  al- 
most sure  to  cause  trouble.  Experimental  data  show  that 
sour  skim  milk  is  just  as  good  as  sweet  skim  milk,  and 
that  butter  milk  is  just  as  good  as  sour  or  sweet  skim 
milk,  but  if  these  various  feeds  are  to  be  used  they  must 
be  used  continuously  and  not  alternately. 

Treatment. — The  best  way  to  handle  scours  of  this 
kind  is  not  to  allow  the  cause  for  them  a  chance  to  pre- 
vail. Feed  both  the  sow  and  the  pigs  as  they  should  be 
fed.  If  through  accident  a  mistake  is  made  and  scours  of 
this  kind  are  started,  remove  the  cause  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible, and  supply  sanitary  conditions  as  well  as  good  feed. 
If  the  scours  result  from  over-feeding,  the  feed  should  be 
reduced  and  at  the  same  time  the  dam,  in  case  the 
pigs  are  sucking,  or  the  pigs  themselves  after  they  are 
weaned,  should  be  given  a  physic  and  thoroughly  cleaned 
out.  This  should  be  followed  by  a  small  quantity  of 
good,  wholesome  easily  digested  feed,  and  the  pens 
should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  disinfected.  Better 
still  if  the  pigs  are  put  into  entirely  new  pens. 

Contagious  Form. — The  contagious  form  of  scours  is 
usually  called  white  scours.  Sometimes  the  discharge 
may  also  be  black.  The  best  cure  for  this  trouble  is  the 
same  as  given,  namely,  physic  the  animals  thoroughly, 
disinfect  and  clean  up  the  troughs  and  pens  and  other 
places  occupied  by  the  pigs  so  as  to  clean  out  all  the 
germs  which  are  the  cause  of  this  trouble.  As  a  physic 
epsom  salts,  castor  oil  or  linseed  oil  may  be  used. 

PARTIAL  PARALYSIS. 

This  disease  seems  to  be  caused  by  improper  nutrition. 
It  usually  consists  of  paralysis  of  the  hind  quarters  of  the 
hog  so  that  it  cannot  stand  on  its  hind  feet,  but  drags  it- 


298  SWINE 

self  around  by  means  of  its  front  legs.  A  hog  affected  in 
such  a  way  has  soft,  spongy  bones,  especially  at  the 
joints  in  the  legs,  and  its  muscles  are  filled  with  soft 
slimy  ooze.  The  bones  are  weak  and  the  stomach  is  out 
of  order.  This  disease  is  thought  to  be  caused  by  insuffi- 
cient mineral  matter  in  the  feed,  hence  is  usually  preva- 
lent in  localities  where  the  soil  is  insufficiently  supplied 
with  mineral  matter,  or  where  the  pig  is  kept  under  arti- 
ficial conditions  and  not  given  enough  mineral  matter  in 
his  feed. 

The  prevention  of  the  disease  consists  simply  in  feed- 
ing the  hog  properly,  especially  giving  him  sufficient  of 
various  kinds  of  mineral  matter,  of  which  lime  and  phos- 
phorus are  perhaps  the  most  important.  He  may  be  fed 
mineral  substances  direct,  or  feeds  that  are  .rich  in  min- 
eral matter.  The  cure  for  this  evil  is  not  very  well  es- 
tablished and  is  a  slow  process.  It  may  take  a  year  to 
effect  a  cure  by  feeding  mineral  substances. 

Another  malady  that  is  said  to  be  caused  by  a  defici- 
ency of  bone-making  material  in  the  pig  is  what  is  called 
sniffles.  This  may  also  be  remedied  by  proper  feeding. 

COUGHING. 

A  cough  in  hogs  may  be  the  result  of  various  causes. 
As  already  noted,  hogs  that  have  tuberculosis  may  cough, 
and  besides  this  hogs  may  cough  for  various  reasons,  as 
for  instance,  when  they  have  worms,  especially  in  the 
lungs;  sore  throat,  colds,  pneumonia,  etc.  A  hog  is  sub- 
ject to  various  diseases  similar  to  those  affecting  man.  If 
he  coughs  because  he  has  tuberculosis,  there  is  no  cure 
except  to  destroy  the  individual ;  if  he  has  worms,  these 
may  be  taken  care  of;  if  he  has  sore  throat,  he  should  be 
treated  like  a  man  with  such  an  ailment;  if  he  has  pneu- 
monia, he  should  be  handled  likewise, — namely,  be  kept 


ROOTING  299 

in  warm  well  ventilated  and  comfortable  quarters,  given 
a  dose  of  physic,  and  then  small  quantities  of  laxative 
and  easily  digested  feeds. 

Another  cause  of  coughing  is  dust.  During  a  dusty 
season  when  a  bunch  of  hogs  go  to  pasture,  the  first  ones 
kick  up  considerable  dust,  part  of  which  will  be  inhaled 
by  those  in  the  rear.  This  is  a  more  important  factor 
with  pigs  than  with  other  animals  because  a  pig  lives 
on  or  quite  close  to  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Moreover, 
many  hog  houses  instead  of  having  clean  places  for  the 
hogs  to  lie  and  sleep,  have  only  a  dust  floor,  which  might 
answer  very  well  to  destroy  lice  on  chickens,  but  is  no 
place  for  a  hog  to  live,  because  a  hog  standing  on  short 
legs  and  having  his  nostrils  or  snout  close  to  the  ground, 
will  inhale  a  great  deal  of  the  dust.  These  particles  lodg- 
ing in  the  bronchial  tubes  or  the  lungs  will  cause  irritation 
and  induce  the  hog  to  cough,  also  furnish  a  lodging  place 
for  disease  germs  of  various  kinds  and  may  be  the  cause 
of  other  troubles  such  as  tuberculosis,  hog  cholera,  pneu- 
monia, etc. 

ROOTING. 

Rooting  cannot  be  said  to  be  a  form  of  disease,  still  it 
may  be  considered  at  this  time.  A  hog  in  his  natural 
state  gets  a  good  share  of  his  feed,  especially  the  mineral 
nutrients,  from  the  soil  by  rooting  for  them.  His  snout 
equips  him  well  for  this  form  of  work.  It  is  frequently 
said  that  if  a  domesticated  hog  is  properly  fed  he  will  not 
root.  This,  however,  is  not  necessarily  true.  While  root- 
ing may  be  prevented  to  a  considerable  extent  by  proper 
feeding,  this  will  not  always  prevent  it  entirely.  The 
appetite  of  a  pig,  especially  for  protein,  is  more  or  less 
abnormal,  and  irregularity  in  feeding  will  set  up  the  factor 
of  waste  which  will  demand  a  large  quantity  of  protein, 


300  SWINE 

the  tendency  of  which  is  to  increase  rather  than  to  de- 
crease. The  pig  then,  when  he  is  at  liberty  in  a  pasture, 
will  help  himself  to  protein  substances  such  as  insects 
and  grubs  of  various  forms,  which  are  found  in  the  soil, 
even  though  he  will  have  to  root  for  them.  These  ma- 
terials are  the  natural  food  for  hogs  and  are  much  more 
palatable  than  substances  that  are  given  him.  Conse- 
quently a  hog  will  still  be  inclined  to  root  more  or  less 
even  though  he  may  be  fed  the  proper  quantity  of  protein 
and  sufficient  mineral  matter  to  supply  the  demands  of 
his  system  for  substances  of  this  nature. 

While  rooting  does  not  do  any  harm  to  the  hog,  it  may 
injure  pastures  to  a  considerable  extent.  If  pastures  are 
not  thus  to  be  injured,  artificial  means  must  be  adopted 
to  prevent  the  hog  from  rooting.  Various  means  are  at 
hand  to  do  this.  Sometimes  the  cartilage  at  the  end  of  the 
hog's  snout  is  cut  with  a  knife,  and  at  other  times  an  in- 
strument is  used  which  will  cut  a  slit  in  the  center  of  the 
snout  and  then  cut  the  cartilage  crosswise  from  this  for 
a  considerable  distance.  This  is  quite  an  effective  means 
of  preventing  the  hog  from  rooting,  but  is  rather  inhuman 
treatment  and  will  disfigure  the  snout  of  the  hog  consider- 
ably. A  better  means  to  prevent  rooting  is  by  using  an 
ordinary  ring.  A  single  ring  is  considered  better  than  a 
double  ring.  These  rings  may  be  bought  at  any  hardware 
store  together  with  the  pliers  with  which  they  are  in- 
serted. They  usually  come  in  two  sizes,  for  small  pigs 
and  for  large  hogs.  These  rings  are  simply  put  into  the 
snout  of  the  hog  by  means  of  the  pliers  and  if  one  will 
not  answer  the  purpose,  two  or  three  may  be  used.  A 
single  ring  is  considered  better  than  a  double  ring  be- 
cause it.  is  less  likely  to  get  caught  on  various  obstructions 
and  be  pulled  out,  and  less  likely  to  have  particles  of  feed 


ROOTING  301 

or  manure  adhere  to  it  in  the  winter  and  freeze  into  a 
ball.  When  this  occurs  it  is  objectionable  to  have  rings 
in  the  snouts  of  hogs,  especially  the  larger  or  more  cum- 
bersome varieties  of  rings. 

In  order  to  hold  a  hog  for  the  purpose  of  ringing  a 
strong  light  rope  may  be  used  with  a  ring  securely  fas- 
tened in  one  end.  The  other  end  of  the  rope  is  drawn 
through  this  ring,  making  a  slip  noose,  which  is  put  on 
the  upper  jaw  of  the  hog.  A  large  loop  may  be  made  in 
the  form  of  a  lasso,  and  after  having  a  bunch  of  hogs  in 
the  pen,  this  may  be  thrown  over  the  head  of  the  hog, 
catching  him  by  the  upper  jaw  and  drawing  the  rope 
back  into  his  mouth  and  then  drawing  fast.  The  end 
of  the  rope  is  then  wound  once  around  a  post  and  the  hog 
is  thus  held.  He  will  naturally  pull  backwards,  which 
will  hold  his  snout  perfectly  firm  and  rigid  so  that  the 
ring. can  be  clasped  into  place  very  easily.  Any  other 
means  of  holding  a  hog  that  will  keep  its  snout  perfectly 
quiet  and  that  may  be  safe,  would  be  equally  good,  but 
the  hog  should  be  held  so  that  he  cannot  jerk  backwards 
or  jerk  his  snout  sideways  or  up  and  down. 

THUMPS. 

Thumps  is  a  very  common  ailment  among  pigs  under 
certain  conditions.  It  occurs  most  frequently  in  young 
pigs  that  do  not  have  enough  exercise.  The  symptoms 
are  labored,  jerky  breathing,  similar  to  heaves  in  a  horse. 
The  most  practical  cure  is  removal  of  the  cause,  but  this 
is  insignificant  in  value  as  compared  with  prevention.  To 
prevent  this  trouble  pigs  should  have  an  abundance  of 
exercise,  but  if  this  cannot  be  supplied  the  ration  should 
be  materially  reduced. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 
MARKETING  SWINE. 

Hogs  may  be  sold  to  the  local  butcher,  to  local  packers, 
or  they  may  be  sold  on  the  large  central  markets.  In  the 
latter  case  they  usually  go  through  the  hands  of  country 
shippers  who  make  a  business  of  buying  hogs  in  the 
country  and  shipping  them  to  the  market  centers  where 
they  are  sold.  They  may  also  be  shipped  direct  by  the 
producer. 

DEMAND  AND  SUPPLY  OF  HOGS. 

As  previously  noted,  the  market  demands  more  heavy 
hogs  in  winter  and  more  light  hogs  in  summer.  The  sup- 
ply of  hogs  on  the  market  is  not  always  in  accordance 
with  the  demand,  and  therefore  they  do  not  sell  for  as 
much  money  as  they  should.  This  is  true  because  hogs 
that  are  selling  not  because  they  are  in  demand,  but  sim- 
ply because  they  are  offered  for  sale,  will  sell  at  a  dis- 
count as  compared  with  hogs  that  are  put  on  the  market 
in  a  condition  when  such  hogs  are  in  greatest  demand. 
Under  present  conditions,  the  bulk  of  the  hogs  going  to 
market  are  produced  from  pigs  farrowed  in  the  spring  of 
the  year.  Thus  by  being  farrowed  early  and  being  well 
fed  during  the  summer,  they  may  go  to  market  during 
the  close  of  the  light  hog  season  and  may  be  in  harmony 
as  to  weight  with  what  the  market  demands.  They  also 
may  sell  as  heavy  hogs  during  the  winter.  However,  if 
they  are  farrowed  a  little  later  and  not  fed  quite  so  well, 
and  go  to  market  during  the  winter  season,  they  will  go 

(302) 


MARKETING   SWINE  303 

in  as  light  hogs  while  the  market  at  this  time  demands 
heavy  hogs.  If  they  are  carried  through  the  winter,  as 
many  hogs  are,  and  sold  during  the  next  summer,  they 
will  have  had  time  to  develop  into  heavy  hogs  which 
again  puts  a  product  on  the  market  that  is  not  in  greatest 
demand  because  at  this  time  light  hogs  are  what  is 
wanted  principally.  Thus  if  a  man  is  to  market  his  hogs 
to  the  best  advantage,  he  must  supply  what  the  market 
demands. 

It  is  very  often  said  that  the  market  always  demands 
what  is  not  available.  That  is,  when  light  hogs  are  fur- 
nished the  packers  want  heavy  hogs,  and  when  heavy 
hogs  are  furnished,  they  want  light  hogs ;  but  if  this  ques- 
tion is  properly  considered  it  is  seen  that  the  demands 
for  the  various  types  of  hogs  are  more  or  less  constant  in 
order  to  supply  the  demand  for  pork  as  it  comes  during 
the  different  seasons  of  the  year.  Thus  in  order  to  pro- 
duce market  hogs  to  the  best  advantage  they  should  be 
farrowed  at  such  a  time,  and  fed  in  a  way,  that  they  will 
reach  the  market  with  the  weight  and  condition  that  are 
in  greatest  demand  at  that  particular  time. 

The  time  at  which  hogs  are  to  be  marketed  should  be 
determined  at  the  time  the  sow  is  bred  and  also  when  the 
pigs  are  weaned.  A  system  of  feeding  should  be  adopted 
that  will  get  the  hogs  into  prime  market  condition  at  a 
certain  definite  time,  and  when  this  time  arrives  the  hogs 
should  be  sold.  The  greatest  and  most  economical  gains 
can  be  obtained  by  feeding  a  hog  with  a  certain  definite 
end  in  view,  that  is,  by  finishing  him  at  a  certain  time. 
If  when  this  time  arrives  the  hog  is  not  sold,  but  carried 
over  in  order  to  wait  for  a  better  market,  if  he  has  been 
properly  fed  up  to  this  time  he  will  not  make  profitable 
gains  thereafter,  and  if  carried  over  will  not  make  suf- 


304  SWINE 

ficient  gain  to  pay  for  his  feed,  which  will  probably  more 
than  overbalance  anything  that  may  be  gained  by  waiting 
for  a  better  market. 

HANDLING  AND  SHIPPING  HOGS. 

If  swine  are  raised  on  a  large  enough  scale  to  produce 
hogs  in  car  load  lots,  they  can  be  shipped  to  market  di- 
rectly by  the  producer  in  such  lots.  If  the  farmer  does 
not  produce  this  number,  a  few  neighbors  may  combine 
and  ship  their  own  hogs,  or  in  either  case  the  hogs  may 
be  sold  to  the  country  buyer  or  local  shipper.  At  any 
rate,  hogs  to  sell  to  the  best  advantage  should  be  uniform 
in  size,  be  well  fed  and  in  proper  condition  in  accordance 
with  the  market  demand,  and  should  be  of  the  same  color, 
because  a  drove  of  hogs  that  is  uniform  as  to  size,  condi- 
tion and  color  will  sell  much  better  than  a  mixed  bunch. 
A  few  white  hogs  in  a  bunch  of  black  ones  or  vice  versa 
may  detract  more  from  the  value  of  the  bunch  than  the 
white  individuals  are  worth  in  themselves.  Before  being 
shipped  hogs  should  not  be  fed  abnormally,  because  any 
sudden  changes  in  a  ration  at  any  time  are  more  or  less 
harmful..  Immediately  before  shipping  it  is  best  not  to 
feed  hogs  too  heavily.  They  should  be  given  a  light  feed 
wriich,  to  make  it  better  still,  should  be  somewhat  of  a 
dry  nature. 

The  car  in  which  hogs  are  to  be  shipped  should  be  pro- 
vided with  bedding  in  accordance  with  the  season.  Dur- 
ing the  winter  there  is  no  better  bedding,  either  for  use 
in  cars  or  otherwise,  than  rye  straw  or  shredded  corn  fod- 
der. Oat  straw  is  not  as  good  because  it  is  more  heating 
and  will  allow  the  hogs  to  become  damp  and  appear 
steaming  when  they  come  out  of  the  car,  in  which  condi- 
tion they  will  not  present  so  attractive  an  appearance, 


MARKETING   SWINE  305 

hence  will  not  sell  so  well.  During  the  summer  season 
when  the  weather  is  hot,  sand  makes  the  best  material 
for  bedding.  This  should  be  thoroughly  wet  down  to  give 
the  hogs  a  cool  place  to  lie.  During  extremely  hot 
weather,  if  hogs  must  be  shipped  and  there  is  danger  of 
their  being  overheated,  it  is  well  to  put  a  few  cakes  of 
ice  in  the  center  of  the  car,  which  will  help  to  keep  them 
cool. 

The  greatest  loss  usually  occurs  in  shipping  hogs  im- 
mediately after  loading  and  during  the  time  the  car  is  be- 
ing switched.  It  is  well  to  have  a  man  with  the  car  at 
this  time  to  see  that  they  do  not  fight,  which  would  occur 
if  strange  hogs  were  put  together;  and  that  they  do  not 
pile  up  by  being  frightened  during  switching  of  the  car. 

SELLING  HOGS  ON  THE  MARKET. 

Hogs  are  usually  sold  on  the  large  markets  by  commis- 
sion firms  who  are  there  for  the  purpose.  When  hogs  are 
shipped  they  are  usually  consigned  to  commission  men 
whose  business  it  is  to  sell  them  for  the  owner  to  the  best 
advantage,  deduct  their  charges  as  well  as  the  freight  and 
other  charges,  and  remit  the  balance  to  the  owner.  Hogs 
might  sometimes  be  sold  by  the  owner  himself,  provided 
he  accompanied  the  shipment  to  market,  but  he  cannot  do 
this  as  well  as  a  commission  firm  because  he  does  not 
know  the  buyers  and  is  not  familiar  with  general  market 
conditions.  Furthermore,  the  commission  firms  are  there 
for  that  express  purpose  and  consignments  that  are  not 
thus  billed  may  be  boycotted  and  the  owner  who  tries 
thus  to  avoid  paying  commission  charges  may  find  him- 
self seriously  handicapped. 

Very  often  a  consignment  of  hogs  is  billed  direct  to  the 
packers,  either  by  the  producers  in  the  country  or  by 


306  SWINE 

country  shippers,  which  avoids  having  them  go  through 
the  yards  and  saves  yardage,  commission  charges,  etc. 
While  this  is  an  advantage  in  a  way,  hogs  thus  billed  are 
usually  paid  for  at  the  discretion  of  the  packer  and  do  not 
go  through  the  yards  and  meet  the  competition  as  is  ordi- 
narily practiced.  Furthermore,  hogs  billed  direct  do  not 
have  an  opportunity  to  get  the  fill  that  is  the  practice 
when  hogs  are  sold  in  the  yards.  This  may  often  amount 
to  several  hundred  pounds  per  car,  because  the  hogs  will 
eat  a  little  corn  and  drink  considerable  water  after  they 
are  unloaded  and  before  they  are  sold  in  the  yards. 

Hogs  should  be  loaded  and  started  on  the  road  at  such 
a  time,  in  accordance  with  the  distance  from  market,  that 
they  will  reach  their  destination  in  the  morning.  The 
market  for  hogs,  as  well  as  for  other  classes  of  live  stock, 
is  usually  in  the  forenoon.  This  is  the  time  of  day  when 
the  buyers  from  the  various  packing  houses  visit  the 
yards  to  buy  their  supplies  for  the  day.  Sometimes  hogs 
are  bought  early  in  the  morning,  and  at  other  times  the 
buyers  may  not  take  hold  until  later  in  the  forenoon. 
This  depends  altogether  upon  conditions  and  the  way 
they  feel  about  it.  If  they  think  hogs  can  be  bought 
cheapest  early  in  the  day,  they  will  buy  early  in  the  morn- 
ing; at  other  times,  if  they  think  they  can  buy  cheaper 
by  waiting  until  later  in  the  forenoon,  they  will  wait. 
Hogs  should  go  to  market  in  time  then  so  that  they  can 
be  unloaded,  fed  and  watered,  and  then  sold  at  the  time 
the  market  is  the  best.  It  is  best  if  they  can  be  sold  im- 
mediately after  they  are  fed  and  watered  because  at  this 
time  they  will  have  the  greatest  fill  and  therefore  will 
weigh  the  most. 

After  reaching  the  yards,  the  car  of  hogs  is  taken  in 
charge  by  agents  of  the  stock  yards  company.  Em- 


MARKETING  SWINE  307 

ployes  of  this  firm  take  charge  of  the  cars  as  they  arrive, 
unload  the  hogs,  count  out  the  individuals,  take  charge  of 
any  dead  ones  that  may  be  in  the  car,  and  deliver  the  re- 
maining ones  (or  all  of  the  shipment  if  there  are  none 
dead)  to  the  commission  firm  to  which  the  car  is  billed. 
The  commission  firm  then  feeds,  waters  and  sells  the 
bunch.  If  any  dead  hogs  are  in  the  car,  they  are  noted 
and  the  shipper  is  given  credit  for  the  same  at  the  rate  of 
75  cents  per  hundred  pounds  weight,  provided  the  hog 
weighs  more  than  one  hundred  pounds.  The  weight, 
however,  is  estimated  and  not  obtained  by  weighing. 

The  expenses  for  selling  hogs  on  the  large  markets,  as 
for  instance  in  Chicago,  consist  of  eight  cents  per  head 
for  yardage,  and  one  dollar  per  bushel  for  corn,  which 
amount  goes  to  the  stock  yards  company  for  the  use 
of  its  pens.  There  usually  also  is  a  switching  charge 
which  is  for  taking  the  car  from  the  railroad  company  and 
hauling  it  over  private  track  to  the  chutes  where  it  is  un- 
loaded. This  consists  of  from  one  to  two  dollars  per  car. 
The  commission  firm  charges  for  its  work  of  selling  the 
hogs  eight  dollars  per  single  deck  car,  but  by  smaller 
lots  the  charge  is  thirty  cents  per  head.  With  these 
charges  deducted  the  balance  is  remitted  to  the  owner 
except  that,  as  the  hogs  pass  over  the  scales  before  they 
go  to  the  buyer,  ten  cents  per  car  is  also  charged  to  pay 
the  expenses  of  the  government  inspector  who  inspects 
them  at  this  point  to  note  and  take  out  any  individuals 
that  show  external  symptoms  of  disease.  These  are  taken 
and  slaughtered  under  inspection,  and  if  found  to  be  dis- 
eased to  such  an  extent  that  the  carcass  is  unfit  for  food, 
the  loss  falls  upon  the  owner.  If  they  are  found  not  to 
be  diseased  they  go  into  the  regular  channels  of  the  trade 
and  the  price  of  the  hog  is  remitted  to  the  owner. 


308  SWINE 

Hogs  may  be  sold  on  the  large  markets  to  packers  and 
local  butchers,  speculators  and  shippers.  The  latter  are 
buyers  on  the  market  whose  duty  it  is  to  buy  hogs  for  out- 
side packers,  usually  in  the  east.  These  eastern  packers 
do  not  have  a  large  enough  home  supply  of  hogs  to  keep 
their  plants  running  throughout  the  year  and  therefore 
when  the  home  supply  is  used  up  they  buy  hogs  in  west- 
ern markets  to  keep  their  plants  running.  Since  hog 
product,  or  the  pork,  can  be  shipped  more  economically 
than  the  live  hogs  it  might  be  asked  why  live  hogs  should 
be  shipped  east  at  all.  But  considering  that  the  east  pro- 
duces some  hogs,  which  can  be  handled  to  the  best  advan- 
tage locally,  it  is  necessary  to  have  packing  houses,  but 
these  cannot  be  kept  running  during  the  entire  year  with 
the  local  supply.  Thus  during  times  when  the  local  sup- 
ply is  not  sufficient,  rather  than  to  shut  down  their  plants 
and  not  have  competent  labor,  when  needed,  it  is  more 
economical  for  them  to  buy  hogs  in  the  great  markets  of 
the  west  to  supplement  the  local  supply  in  order  to  keep 
their  plants  running. 

Speculators  are  individuals  in  the  large  markets  who 
make  a  business  of  buying  and  selling  hogs.  They  usually 
make  their  profit  by  buying  hogs  cheap  and  selling  them 
at  a  higher  price.  This  may  be  done  in  various  ways. 
They  may  either  buy  from  inexperienced  salesmen  and 
buy  the  hogs  for  less  than  they  are  worth,  or  they  may 
buy  on  a  rising  market  and  then  sell  at  a  higher  price 
later  in  the  day  or  later  in  the  week;  or,  they  may  buy 
mixed  droves  of  hogs,  which  usually  sell  for  less  than 
they  are  worth,  divide  them  up  into  droves  of  similar 
size,  color,  etc.,  and  sell  them  in  convenient-sized  bunches 
when  thus  properly  sorted.  The  hogs  can  in  this  way  be 
sold  to  better  advantage  than  in  the  original  mixed 


MARKETING  SWINE  309 

bunch.  The  speculator  has  an  advantage  in  this  business 
that  the  commission  man  does  not  have.  The  commis- 
sion man,  by  getting  simply  one  car  of  hogs  from  a  ship- 
per, must  sell  this  car  to  the  credit  of  this  man.  If  such 
a  car  of  hogs  is  made  up  in  the  main  of  black  hogs,  but  has 
a  few  white  ones  mixed  in,  these  cannot  be  sold  sep- 
arately to  the  best  advantage  because  there  would  be  so 
few  that  a  regular  buyer  would  not  look  at  them.  There 
may  also  be  a  few  hogs  of  odd  sizes,  poor  condition,  or 
otherwise  out  of  harmony  with  the  bunch;  these  cannot 
be  sold  to  the  best  advantage  if  taken  out  of  the  bunch 
because  they  are  too  few  in  number.  Consequently  the 
bunch  as  a  whole  can  be  sold  to  better  advantage,  but 
the  whole  mixed  bunch  usually  cannot  be  sold  for  what 
they  are  really  worth  because  they  are  mixed.  The  specu- 
lator can  buy  a  number  of  cars  of  mixed  hogs  like  these, 
divide  them  up  into  their  respective  classes,  and  sell  them 
at  a  margin  of  profit.  He  however  runs  great  risks  be- 
cause often  he  pays  more  for  hogs  than  is  paid  for  the 
same  kind  by  the  packers.  Then  again  he  runs  the  risk 
of  losing  considerable  on  a  bunch  of  hogs  by  the  market 
going  down. 

While  occasionally  a  shrewd  man  makes  considerable 
profit  as  a  speculator,  the  majority  of  them  are  said  to 
lose  as  much  as  they  make;  hence  the  speculator  is  not 
a  disadvantage  by  taking  away  the  profit  that  should  be- 
long to  the  farmer,  but  is  a  decided  advantage  because 
he  creates  competition  and  is  responsible  for  the  hogs  sell- 
ing to  much  better  advantage  than  would  be  the  case  if 
he  were  not  present.  Hogs  that  are  sold  to  speculators 
follow  the  same  route  as  those  that  are  sold  otherwise  ex- 
cept that  after  passing  over  the  scales  under  the  eye  of  the 
inspector,  they  go  to  the  pens  of  the  speculator  while  hogs 


310  SWINE 

sold  to  the  packers  go  to  the  large  packing  houses,  or 
those  sold  to  shippers  go  to  the  shipping  pens.  The  ship- 
ping pens  are  at  one  side  of  the  yards  where  the  hogs  are 
usually  loaded  in  the  evening  to  be  shipped  east  because 
the  centers  of  consumption  are  in  the  east  rather  than  in 
the  west.  The  hogs  sold  to  the  speculators  are  resold 
later  to  the  packers  or  shippers. 


INDEX. 


Air,  134. 
Age,   23. 

American  breeds.   90. 
American   swine,    77. 
Ancestors,   167. 
Appetite,    164. 

Ash  or  mineral  matter,  as  part  of 
a  hog,   121. 

Bacon  hog,   30,  65. 
Berkshire,   81,   94. 
Black  teeth,   222. 
Boar,  feeding,   201. 

castrating,  226. 

ruptured,    229. 
Breed,  selection  of,   13,  170. 

development  of,  94. 

origin  of,  74. 
Breeding,  107. 

herd,   68. 

methods  of,  101. 

season,  209,  211. 

sow,  216. 

Building  material  for  a  hog,    123. 
Byfield,   93. 

Carbohydrate   requirement,    160. 
Carbohydrates,    127. 
Carbonaceous  concentrates,   130. 
Castration,  226. 
Changes  in  ration,   186. 
Cheshire  swine,   47,   98. 
Chester  White  swine,  38,  83. 
China  swine,   93. 
Cholera,   275. 

contagious,   276. 

prevention,   277. 
Close  breeding,  102. 
Class  of  feeds,   129. 
Coal  tar  dips,  287. 
Coefficients  of  digestibility,   123. 
Color  of  swine,  20. 
Compounding   rations,    178. 
Construction  of  the  hog,   117 
Cooking  feeds,    184. 
Cots,   259.  • 
Cross  breeding,  105. 

Dam,   214,   215. 
Dipping  tank.   289. 
Digestible  nutrients,    186. 

coefficients  of,   123. 
Dry  feeds.   128. 
Durocs,    89. 
Duroc- Jerseys,  40. 

Ear  marks,   224. 

English  breeds,  74. 

English       Blacks      and       English 


Environment,    165. 

Essex  swine,    84,   99. 

Ether    extract    requirement,     128, 

161. 
Experiment  stations,  work  of,  140, 

Farrowing,  218. 

Fat  or  lard  hog,  14,  34,  52. 

Fat,  as  part  of  hog,  121. 

Factors  in  feeding,   147. 

Factor  of  waste,  149. 

Feed  for  making  gains,  155. 

per  hundred  pounds  live  weight, 
26. 

trough,    189. 

yard,   191. 
Feeds,  dry,   128,   130. 

classification    and    composition, 

selection  of,  170. 

ground,   180. 

cooked,   181. 

green,   130. 

changes  in,  295. 
Feeding  the  pig,   198,   202. 

the  herd,   198. 

too  little  and  too  much,    168. 

individual,    193. 

number  of  feeds  per  day,  194 
Fence,  panel,  262. 
Floors  for  pigs,  253. 

Gains    in    live   weight,    large    and 

economical,    169. 
Grade  hog,   69. 
Grading,    104. 
Grinding  grain,    180. 
Growth,  rate  of,  23. 

Hampshire,   45,   96. 
Handling  hogs,   304. 
Heavy  hogs,   302. 
Herd  boar,  72. 

sow,   71. 

records,   232. 

specimens,    72. 
Hog,  what  is  a,   117. 
Hogging  down  corn,   138. 
Houses,    241. 

plan  of,  247. 

cost  of,  254. 

uses  of,  257. 

small,  or  cots,  259,  260. 

Inbreeding,  102. 
Irish   pig,    93. 
Irish  grazier,   93,   94. 
Individual  houses,   258. 
Inoculation,   279. 


(311) 


312 


INDEX 


Judging    swine,    51. 
Jersey  Reds,   89. 

Kerosene  emulsion,  288. 

Large  Blacks,  49,   100. 

Leicester,    79. 

Lice,   286. 

Lincoln,   100. 

Location  of  farm,  18. 

Liquid   feeds,    131. 

Line  breeding,    102. 

Litters,  number  per  year,   209. 

size  of,  220. 
Light  hogs,  302. 

Magie,  David,  95. 

Marketing,  22,  302. 

Market   hogs,    influence    in   select- 
ing breed,  25,  304. 
requirements  of,   212. 

Marking  pigs,   223. 

Maintenance      requirement,       149, 
161. 

Maturity,  26. 

Mineral  requirement,  161. 
matter,  128. 

Mud  wallow,  286. 

New  feeding  standard,  147. 

results  of,   196. 
Normal  pig,  227. 
Nitrogenous  concentrates,    131. 
Number  of  feeds  per  day,  194. 
Nutrients,  123. 
Nutritive  ratio,  143. 

Offspring,    character   of   in   breed- 
ing, 103. 

Ohio  Improved  Chester,  87. 
Oil  dips,   288. 
Out   crossing,    101. 
Overfeeding,   168,   296. 

Packing  hogs,   212. 

Pasture,  138,   255. 

Pig  as  a  machine,   161. 

feeding  of,  188. 

castrating,   226. 
Pork  hogs,   213. 
Poland-China  swine,   43,   90. 
Private  sales,   70. 
Prolificacy,  23,  27,  215. 
Protein  requirement,  119,  126,  158. 
Public  sales,   70. 
Pure  bred,  101. 

Quality,  23,  28. 

Rations,    I&3,   205. 

calculating,  172. 

compounding,  178. 

variety  in,  163. 
Records  of  Poland-China,   96. 
Recording  swine,   231. 
Requirement     of     nutrients,      144, 
156. 


Rickets,  297. 
Rooting,   299. 
Roughages,    132. 
Rubbing  post,    287. 
Ruptured   boars,    229. 
Russian  swine,  92. 

Sale,  public,   70. 

private,  70. 
Sanitation,  292. 
Scours,  295. 

Serum,   hog  cholera,   279. 
Shelter  for  swine,   241 
Shipping  hogs,   304. 
Show  hogs,   211. 
Sire,  214,  215. 
Size  of  swine,  23. 
Skim  milk  as  feed,  129    270 
Slaughter  houses,  270. 
Soaking  the  feed,   183. 
Sows,   bred,   71. 

feeding,    198. 

breeding,  216. 

old,  201. 
Spaying,   230. 
Standard  of  feeding,   145. 
Standards  of  excellence,   53,   67 

fat  or  lard  hog  for  breeding,  53. 

fat  or  lard  hog  for  market,   63 

bacon   hog  for  breeding,    66 

bacon  hog  for  market,   67. 
Sniffles,   298. 
Summer  feeding,  137. 
Sus  Indica,   75,   81. 
Sus  Scrofa,   76. 
Swine  breeding,  107. 
Swine  feeding,  115. 

common   practice   of,    135. 
^Tamworth  swine,  30.  78 
Thin   Rind,   86,   96. 
Thumps,   301. 
Todd's    Chester    White,    85 
Trough  for  swine,  189. 
Tuberculosis,   267. 

infection  from,  270. 

duration  of,   271. 

treatment,   272. 
Type,  production  of,  16. 
Types  of  swine,   14. 

Underfeeding,   168. 

Variety  in  a  ration,  163. 
Victorias,  49. 

Water,  118,  133,  136,  156. 
Water  wallow,   287. 
Weaning  the  pigs,    236. 
methods  of,   237,   238. 
Winter  feeding,   137. 
Wild   boar,    74 

Wolff-Lehmann    Standard,    143. 
Worms,   294. 


.. 

Middle,  49,  80. 


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